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ON THE EDGE OF EXTINCTION - A - THE TIGER (Panthera tigris)
ON THE EDGE OF EXTINCTION - A - THE TIGER (Panthera tigris)
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ON THE EDGE OF EXTINCTION - A - THE TIGER (Panthera tigris)
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 (01-02-2022, 12:24 PM)Hello Wrote: Kundur 272 kg amur, Philadelphia zoo, he looks huge and large framed at that distance Copied per request. This tiger is also mentioned in @peter's tables. 
ERLEBNIS ERDE: SIBERISCHER TIGER - SEELE DER RUSSISCHEN WILDNIS (documentary, 2021)
1 - Introduction There are plenty of documentaries about wild Amur tigers. Although interesting, most are somewhat outdated. A few days ago, I saw a very recent (2021) documentary on the ARD (Germany): 'Erlebnis Erde: Siberischer Tiger - Seele der Russischen Wildnis'. It took Franz Hafner and his crew a long time to find tigers. All in all, they needed about 18 months (...) to produce a documentary of 44 minutes only. In my opinion, Hafner succeeded in most respects. Quite an achievement if we add the conditions were all but easy. Hafner not only faced swarms of mosquitos, but severe cold. Most of all, he faced the tiger. He said they were very aware of his team. This post has a few remarks about the documentary. 2 - Links Here's the link to a 30-second preview: https://www.daserste.de/information/repo...o-100.html Here's a link to the full documentary: https://www.daserste.de/information/repo...o-100.html If the links don't work, visit the site of the ARD. 3 - Content The documentary first of all offers many great views. Most of us take it for granted, but it isn't. Sichote-Alin is a fascinating region where the arctic and the subtropics meet. In many ways, it's unmatched. Most pioneers were amazed at what they saw. The books they wrote offer many detailed descriptions of what they saw. Actually seeing the scenes yourself, however, is very different from reading about it. On a large screen, Hafners documentary is quite breathtaking. Hafner and his team tried to find tigers for a long time. All early attempts ended in failure. You really have to give it everything you have and hope you get lucky one day. And when you find them, chances are they already knew about you. Meaning they have to trust you before they show themselves. In most of Sichote-Alin, they don't. Wild tigers are very elusive animals comparing to ghosts. In the end, Hafner decided to visit the Bikin Valley. This part of Sichote-Alin still has pristine forests and animals haven't been hunted in a long time. This means they're not as wary as in other regions. Although they succeeded in filming quite a few tigers, the focus is on a tigress and her two cubs (a male and a female). The tigress is an able hunter. One day, the crew had the good fortune to witness a successfull hunt in the snow. It no doubt is one of the highlights of the documentary. In his second year, the male cub left his family to find a home for himself. Although he already was a skilled hunter, he remained elusive. The reason was adult male tigers. One of the scenes shows him responding to the call of an adult male tiger. When he heard the loud bass at close range, the young male hissed, bared his teeth, made himself as small as possible and immediately retreated. The fear is very visible. Talking about adult male tigers. Hafner and his team succeeded in capturing some nice scenes of males visiting and rubbing a smell tree. Compared to the young male, they, although a bit leaner, were more muscular and bigger. According to Hafner, the health of a tiger doesn't depend on his skills only. About every 4 years, there is a crop failure in the Russian Far East. Animals depending on these crops have no option but to disperse. Tigers follow them, but this means risks have to be taken. For those interested in tigers and bears. According to Hafner, (brown) bears top the food chain in Wild Russia. In the Bikin Valley, however, this is not the case. Bears, that is to say, do not visit, let alone appropiate, kills of adult male tigers. Tigers hunt bears, and Himalayan black bears in particular. In good conditions, and 2020 and 2021 apparently were good years, male tigers are bulky animals occasionally getting close to 300 kg. Those interested in wild boars will not be disappointed as well. Hafner succeeded in filming a few of them. The close-up's show bulky individuals wiith impressive tusks. Ussuri wild boars are the largest of all. Although tigers today have a lot of room, Sichote-Alin, apart from two large cities (Chabarowsk and Vladivostok), has quite a few small settlements. Trees are felled in a number of districts. The result, apart from destruction, is stress. People living in small settlements have to be wary and the same is true for tigers living close to these settlements. Every now and then, tigers enter them. One of them, a tigress, did it more than once to hunt dogs. This is why local rangers decided to track her down. She was darted from a distance of about 20 yards, meaby a bit more. When hit, she immediately attacked. When she had crossed half the distance, a fire cracker exploded. The attack was abandoned and the tigress was arrested. Time and again I noticed rangers in Sichote-Alin are very capable. In order to avoid problems between tigers and humans, they act as soon as the unsigned treaty between man and tiger is threatened. In Sichote-Alin, tigers have a bit of credit because they, to a degree, limit the population size of wolves and bears in some districts. In spite of that, there's not much room for errors. One dog isn't a crime (everyone can make a mistake), but two is one too many and rules are rules. This most probably is the best strategy in regions where man and tiger are neighbours. Anything else? Yes. This is one of the documentaries that really offers a lot of tigers. Although Hafner used a few old photographs, the footage is recent and special. All in all, I'd say he should be very happy with the result. 4 - Size The adult males Hafner captured on film (about halfway the documentary) seemed to be healthy and quite large. Although not as big as the remarkable Duisburg Zoo tiger, this model seems to dominate in the Bikin Valley. Compared to the captive male Amur tigers I saw, Bikin Valley tigers seem a bit more square as well as more robust. This impression, however, could have been a result of the season. In winter, Amur tigers carry an extra layer of fat and a denser coat. The tables I posted (see the previous posts) say captive male Amur tigers average 495-496 pounds and just over 9.11 in total length measured 'between pegs'. The weight I found, as a result of the factors discussed, could have been a bit low. This was the opinion of those I consider to be 'in the know' as well. How do their wild relatives compare? We don't know. Only few adult wild tigers are weighed and measured. It is, however, well known captive tigers often lack the development typical for their wild relatives. Wild tigers are big game hunters that need a lot of training. Not all tigers succeed. Amur tigers hunt wild boars and face competition of black and brown bears. Himalayan black bears can exceed 450 pounds at times and an average adult male Ussuri brown bear ranges between 550-600 pounds. Recent information says adult male tigers are not displaced by bears, but young adults and females, at times, are. This means size (weight) is a factor to consider. Same for population size. When the Siberian Tiger Project (STP) started, individual variation, judging from the table published in 2005, seemed to be limited. The difference between 1992 and 2022 is the number of adult wild Amur tigers has increased. As a large population produces more individual variation than a small population, it is likely tigers will respond. I'm not saying the days of Baikov will return, but it's likely some wild Amur tigers will approach the size of some of their large captive relatives. 5 - Pictures The 2 pictures in this paragraph, in order to prevent confusion, are not from the documentary. Both males, however, compare to the males seen in the documentary (referring to their general appearance). The first male, a youngish adult judging from the teeth and the colour of his nose, has a large head, but isn't as massive as the second male. These large heads, by the way, are not a result of coincidence or selection. The males featuring in the documentary also have relatively large and heavy heads. According to V. Mazak (1983), the length of the head in captive male Amur tigers can be as much as 20% of the head and body length. If we add the width of the rostrum and the length and width of the upper canines in particular, the conclusion is Amur tigers have a large head and relatively large teeth. With 'relative', I mean they have larger than expected teeth. The question is why. It most probably isn't a result of the size of the animals they hunt. Male tigers in northern and northeastern India hunt larger and heavier animals. Although they too have large and heavy heads as a general rule, their teeth seem to be relatively smaller. This is confirmed in skulls of captive tigers. Compared to skulls of Amur tigers, skulls of male Indian tigers, although a tad shorter, usually are as heavy or heavier. The upper canines, however, usually are a bit shorter and not quite as robust at the insertion. Bones are a result of function. Amur tigers need extra large and strong upper canines, that is. The only reason I can think of is wild boars and bears. Amur tigers hunt both and both animals, even if they're similar in size, are quite agile and relatively massive, especially in the region of the neck. Amur tigers need large canines able to withstand pressure from different angles for a prolonged period of time in order to overcome the resistance of both as quickly as possible. The reason is both wild boars and bears can be dangerous. Tigers have been wounded and killed by both. If they target large wild boars and bears, and research says adult males hunt female brown bears up to their own size (weight), they need more than large teeth. They also need strong muscles in the upper part of the body, including the neck. It is, in this respect, interesting that captive male Amur tigers lose size and weight after reaching 7 or 8 years of age. This, however, is not true for the circumference of the neck: the older the tiger, the bigger the neck. Anyhow. Wild Amur tigers, although (most probably) not longer or heavier, do seem to be a bit more robust than their captive relatives. Here's two examples of what I mean:  *This image is copyright of its original author  *This image is copyright of its original author
The size of bears hunted by Amur tigers
In the Russian Far East, its well known that tigers habitually hunt and kill both brown bears and Himalayan black bears. So much so, that some tigers become bear specialists and prefer eating bears to ungulate prey animals. In this region, tigers are the main natural enemy and predator of bears. So do Amur tigers target large bears as well? Or do they mainly hunt small bears like some people assume? Based on scientific research and observations from various leading experts, biologists and researchers, its an established fact, that tigers definitely hunt and kill both large brown bears and black bears, more often than previously assumed by some biologists. Studies show that tigers mostly kill and eat adult bears and hunt these bears especially in summer and autumn, the seasons when bears are at their peak weights and condition. Since numerous studies consistently show that tigers primarily hunt bears in summer and fall, and since studies show that biologists and researchers found mostly adult bears hunted and killed by tigers, its safe to assume that large bears must be killed too. This is confirmed by several other accounts of tigers hunting and killing large brown bears, as well as recent sources.  *This image is copyright of its original author Research and evidence from Russian experts confirms that tigers prey on big bears as large and larger than themselves. Baikov stated (based on his observations) that large tigers kill bears of the same weight, which proves that large tigers successfully hunt large bears of similar size. i.e. Bears weighing well over 200 kg hunted and killed by tigers. There's no doubt that tigers predate on large bears. Some people speculate that tigers would prefer to hunt small bears, but Tkachenko, Dunishenko, Matyushkin, Batalov, as well as WCS RUSSIA biologists and field researchers observations/reports, proves that male tigers hunt and kill large adult bears. Tigresses are the one's who usually hunt small to medium sized bears, but male tigers (as mentioned in my previous post) have the size, power and strength to regularly hunt and kill large adult bears. A tiger needs large prey animals to kill, scientific studies from the Russian Far East, India and other countries and regions of Asia, consistently show that tigers (male & female) always go after the largest prey animals available. Tigers are specifically built to be big game hunters, this is why even female tigers are well known to single-handedly hunt and kill large bull gaurs 7 times their own weight and huge bantang bulls weighing 800+ kg. A small bear, in general, is not gonna satisfy such a large apex predator like a tiger, as 'energy maximizers', tigers prefer to kill large/very large animals to maximize their energetic return. Thats why tigers usually hunt adult bears, wild boar, elk and red deer. Tigresses have also been confirmed hunting and killing larger bears (Bromley). When it comes to Himalayan black bears, scientific research confirms that tigresses also successfully hunt both adult male bears and females, and have also been recorded killing adult brown bears (Kaplanov 1948; Bromley 1965). Tigers hunting bears - Observations from Tkachenko Konstantin Tkachenko, a zoologist, biologist and researcher, who studied the feeding habits of bear-hunting tigers in the Khekhtsir reserve, observed and reported that when tigers hunt brown bears and black bears, male tigers more often hunted adults, larger bears, whereas the tigress nicknamed "Three-toed" mostly hunted young bears:  *This image is copyright of its original author https://elementy.ru/nauchno-populyarnaya...stvovaniya Brown bear made up 18.5% of the tigers diet "According to K.N. Tkachenko, in the tiger feces he studied, the share of the brown bear was 18.5%, while the share of the white-breasted bear was only 14.8%. In general, in the diet of a tiger, the brown bear firmly held the honourable third place, leaving only wild boar (37%) and red deer (29.6%)." https://shish02.livejournal.com/7269.html?thread=55909 Brown bear made up 18.5% in the tigers diet and Himalayan black bear made up 14.8% in the tigers diet:  *This image is copyright of its original author Russian biologist, tiger ecologist & senior researcher - Yuri Dunishenko (2021) stated that tigers kill large bears with a bite to the base of the skull, which again, confirms that tigers hunt and kill large bears and are able to dispatch big bears with a bite to the base of the skull, which indicates to the immense jaw power of the tiger. "All experts indicate one reason for the death of the victims - the destruction of the cervical vertebrae at the base of the skull. In this manner, the predator kills even a large bear."  *This image is copyright of its original author http://amur-tiger.ru/data/files/files/ti...ressed.pdf Large tigers successfully hunt bears of the same weight:  *This image is copyright of its original author http://www.ssj.sk/sk/user_files/ACS_47_S106.pdf Russian biologist, zoologist & researcher, Matyushkin reported that large bears are prey for male tigers: DIET OF LARGE PREDATORS ( ON THE EXAMPLE OF THE TIGER ): METHODOLOGICAL ANALYSIS - 2008 V.G. Yudin "As Matyushkin (1992) found out, the tiger usually hunts those ungulates that are more numerous on his site. Not only bull red deer, but even large bears and bill-hooks (large mature male wild boars) are physically accessible to an adult male."  *This image is copyright of its original author There are also additional accounts of tigers hunting (and killing) large brown bears (Rakov 1965, E.N. Smirnov, Soviet literature 1956, Jankowski, Abramov). I also posted a reliable account of a tiger that hunted down, attacked and badly mauled a huge male brown bear. (See post #2,532) "In December 1959 on the river, light tiger killed a large brown bear and lived around it for about 10 days until it ate."  *This image is copyright of its original author 170 kg adult brown bear killed by a tigress In the spring of May, 1951 near the Tatibe river, Russian biologist Bromley found the carcass of a 170 kg brown bear that was killed and eaten by a tigress. Some Bear posters claim that the bear was either a subadult or fat juvenile brown bear, but there's no evidence to support such claims. According to actual evidence and reliable sources, the 170 kg brown bear killed by the tigress was an adult brown bear, not a subadult or juvenile. In fact, zoologist Mazak, in his book, stated (according to his sources) that the bear was a full-grown adult brown bear killed. Although Mazak wasn't an authority on tigers and bears in the Russian far east, he did have contact with various Russian researchers and zoologists. According to this scientific peer-reviewed source, the 170 kg brown bear killed by the tigress was an adult brown bear: "A adult brown bear killed by a Amur tigress." (Brown bear was killed in May, not April)  *This image is copyright of its original author https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q9wH...wQ6AEIODAC https://web.natur.cuni.cz/zoospol/actaangl.htm Another thing that strongly indicates that the 170 kg brown bear was an adult bear killed, is the fact that Bromley, the biologist who found the bear, reported this specific case in the same context of tigers being enemies and predators of adult bears in the Russian Far East. A chapter excerpt from Bromley's 1965 publication: (Originally posted by Bear poster 'Grahhh') BROMLEI CHAPTER ON BEARS: PARASITES, ENEMIES AND THE COMPETITORS: ( Primary source ) To the enemies of adult bears before the south of the Far East of the USSR one should add in essence of tiger. In 1940, L.G. Kaplanov (1948) for the first time saw before the sources the brown bear, torn to pieces by a tiger near the den. Based on this year similar cases before the Amur Region and the littoral were registered. It turned out that tigers press bears not only by those sleeping before the dens, but also in the period of their wakefulness. The fur of bears was repeatedly discovered in the spring and autumn excrements of tigers (on April 24, May 1, 10 November 15, November 27, November). In the beginning of May 1951 on the shore Tatibe (inflow river of Iman) based on the cry of crows was possible to find the brown bear (length of 158 cm, the weight of approximately 170 kg), slaughtered by a tigress. In it all most fatty body parts proved to be eaten: back, ham and the accumulation of fat in the inguinal region. 10 m besides the eaten corpse were arranged the excrements, urinary points even three maturation of the tigress, that was being held here approximately of 3-4 days." Now, if this bear was really a "juvenile" or "subadult" bear, as some Bear posters speculate or assume, then why did Bromley (the biologist who found the bear) specifically report this case in the context of tigers being enemies of adult bears? Why did a highly respected zoologist like Mazak (who had contact with several Russian researchers/biologists) also state in his book that the 170 kg brown bear was an adult brown bear killed? And why does a scientific peer-reviewed source also report that this bear was an "adult brown bear killed by a tigress" ?? .... The true length of the bear remains ambiguous because the tigress had already devoured the bears entire (large portion) back side, and we also don't know how (which method) the bear was measured. All in all, considering all the sources reporting this case and the spring weight of the bear, the 170 kg brown bear killed by the tigress, was most likely either a large adult female brown bear or large young adult male bear. This case also confirms that even tigresses (120-140 kg) prey on large bears, and are well capable of killing significantly heavier adult bears with no problems. Which also strongly suggests that a male tiger is also capable of killing brown bears significantly heavier than themselves. Does tiger predation on large bears often lead to head-on confrontations? Yes, and this is a fact backed up by numerous reliable evidence and reports from biologists, naturalists, zoologists and even hunters. Although tigers can and do kill large bears with a bite to the base of the skull, due to the thick fat layer at the nape of the bears neck, large bears cannot be killed immediately in this fashion. Tigers often end up in a fierce struggle with the bear, in which the tiger, almost always, kills the large bear in a face-to-face fight. This is also confirmed by accounts reported by the Siberian Tiger Project biologists, where two different male tigers attacked and killed large adult female brown bears of similar-size, after fierce, prolonged battles. Kaplanov stated: "The tiger kills all types of prey almost instantaneously, biting through the neck vertebrae at the back of the head with canine teeth that reach 6 cm in length. Only large bears, due to the fat layer at the nape of their neck, cannot be immediately killed." https://aboutzoos.info/images/stories/fi...e_Alin.pdf Russian zoologists, Heptner and Sludskii state:  *This image is copyright of its original author https://archive.org/details/mammalsofsov...ew=theater Here's a depiction of a tiger killing a large brown bear by biting the base of the bears skull: *This image is copyright of its original author Some people assume that only small or medium-sized bears are killed with a bite to the base of the skull, but both Baikov and Dunishenko (based on over 40 years of field experience) stated that tigers also kill large bears this way too. The above statements from Kaplanov, Heptner and Sludskii, refute the assumption made by some bear posters, in that, tigers swiftly kill large bears by ambush, which is not the case at all. When tigers hunt and attack large, powerful and robust animals like large bears and wild boars, the tiger in most cases, kills the large bear or boar after an intense struggle. This explains why there are numerous accounts of tigers killing large similar-sized bears and large male boars after prolonged fights. Vaillant (who talked to various biologists, researchers, rangers & locals), in his book, also reported that tigers attack brown bears, and sometimes prosecute the battles (referring to head-on fights) and brutally dismember the bears to the point where the bears appendages are strewn across the battleground:  *This image is copyright of its original author John Goodrich (Chief Scientist & expert on Amur tigers) dreams of watching an Amur tiger attack a brown bear. When interviewed by the BBC Wildlife on the subject, he stated that in his work, he's found many (brown) bears that were killed by tigers, and from the tracks, he could tell that the battle was impressive:  *This image is copyright of its original author https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GJhF...=en&gbpv=0 Note; Goodrich reported that he's found many brown bears killed and eaten by tigers, after (as stated) impressive battles. Which strongly indicates that the brown bears attacked and killed by tigers, found by John Goodrich in his field work, were quite large bears killed. A small bear, or juvenile brown bear is not gonna give a tiger an impressive battle. The Amur tigers physical anatomy and weaponry (wide & massive skull, huge canines, razor-sharp dexterous claws, immense biteforce & massive paws and thick, muscular forelimbs) is specifically designed to attack, grapple, subdue and kill large, dangerous and robust animals like large bears and wild boars. Tigers are the perfect combination of size, strength, speed, power and agility, which makes it the extremely lethal killing machine at the pinnacle of the food-chain and ruling apex predator of its ecosystem and domain. Huge, robust and muscular forelimbs of the tiger, allows it to grapple and overpower big, strong and aggressive animals like bears, wild boars, gaurs, wild buffaloes etc. The superior speed and agility of the tiger also allows it to out-maneuver these animals in a fight. Tigers, of all the worlds terrestrial predators, hunt and kill the most dangerous prey. The tiger eats only large prey. The basis of its diet in nature is wapiti (elk) and wild boars, sika deer, but sometimes the tiger attacks a badger, bear, wolf and lynx. To overwhelm a wolf or grapple with such a dangerous opponent as a bear, it really takes a lot of strength. There are cases when Bengal tigers attacked crocodiles in India, because, as the eastern wisdom says, when a tiger is hungry, it eats everything."  *This image is copyright of its original author https://www.mk.ru/social/article/2009/11...tigra.html What is a 'large bear' killed by a tiger? 'Large bears' hunted and killed by tigers is referring to the biggest male (160-250 kg) Himalayan black bears and adult brown bears of at least similar-size and heavier. Research and observations from various experts confirms that tigers prey on large bears in these size ranges. Himalayan black bears of the Russian Far East (Amur-Ussuri region) are the largest subspecies of Asiatic black bears in the world. Large male bears in this region can weigh up to 200 kg in the fall, with some very large individuals reaching up to 250 kg in weight. Aramilev in a very recent video, stated that tigers especially like to hunt Himalayan black bears in autumn when the bears have fattened up. These large bulked up bears are delicious food for tigers and tigers specifically target these type of bears. Although most bears are killed by tigers during summer and autumn, throughout the winter, tigers will also actively search for hibernating bears in their dens. Finding a sleeping bear, the tiger will pull it out of the den and kill it. Here's an example from leading zoologist and researcher, Sergey Kolchin who found the remains of a fully-grown adult male black bear that was pulled out of his den, killed and eaten by a tiger. Kolchin regularly finds remains of bears killed and eaten by tigers all year round. Sergey Kolchin states: "The main natural enemy of the Himalayan bear in the Ussuri forests is the tiger. The habitats of these species in the south of the Far East coincide, forcing the bear to adapt to the dangerous neighborhood." "An important adaptation that increases its viability in such conditions is wintering in tree hollows. However, if the entrance to the hollow is too low, near the roots of the tree, the tiger can kill the careless owner of the den." "Once positively experienced, tigers begin to systematically check low-entry tree dens in search of prey." Remains of an adult (mature male) Himalayan black bear killed and eaten by a tiger:  *This image is copyright of its original author  *This image is copyright of its original author https://www.facebook.com/sergey.bears?fref=nf STP biologists radio-collared a male tiger nicknamed 'Misha' (Dima, Dale, M20) who habitually hunted adult female brown bears, as well as other bears. Over 80% of Misha's kills found by biologists were bears. 'Misha' killed at least 4 adult female brown bears on record (see chapter 19 study), and two of the four female brown bears killed by 'Misha', were large bears around his own weight:  *This image is copyright of its original author https://www.nfwf.org/sites/default/files...056.03.pdf This account, again, confirms that tigers hunt and kill large adult bears of similar-size and weight, and usually have no problems in doing so. Adult male black bears and adult female brown bears are regularly hunted and killed by male tigers. In some areas and districts, bears are more important in the diet of tigers than wild boar and red deer, particularly during the summer and autumn months. When hunting Himalayan black bears, tigers readily prey on large mature male bears, and when hunting brown bears, tigers also predate on the largest and healthiest adult female brown bears (Kerley). Linda Kerley's observations on tigers hunting bears: Back in 2011-2012, a poster named 'Jungle Sprout' contacted tiger biologist and researcher, Linda Kerley for more info on tiger predation on bears, and to know more about her experiences on the topic, and this is what she stated: ( I just posted the text of her email, as the email is in very bad quality and barely readable ) .... "I have been studying tiger food habits for the past 14 years and have found several bears killed and eaten by tigers. Some tigers specialize in eating bears and they will kill both Asiatic black bears and larger brown bears. We radio tracked one male tiger who ate bears all summer and lost weight in the winter presumably because he couldn't find his favorite food. I have also tracked tigers in snow who seemed to be searching for bear dens perhaps to find a sleeping bear to eat. Recently, people have been killing more bears because of an increased demand for bear feet and gall bladders and I worry that this will effect tigers as well because bears are an important food source for tigers in summer. Her reply to his second question: "I've seen tigers prey on all shapes and sizes of black bears and up to the largest and healthiest female brown bear. We used to think that only male tigers would be brazen enough to tackle a bear but I have seen one incidence where an adult female tiger with cubs killed and ate a black bear. Bears will kill tiger cubs if they can catch them and will chase mother tigers with cubs off kills. There are many stories and mostly what we know is that there are no rules - anything can happen between bears and tigers." Note; more recent studies (2015-2017) from Linda Kerley & Dale Miquelle, shows that tigers regularly hunt and kill bears during the summer months, and predate on bears far more often than previously assumed. Here's some images/videos of adult male Himalayan black bears and female Ussuri brown bears, to put things into perspective of what size and kind of bears that are often hunted by tigers in the Far East of Russia. Adult male Himalayan black bear in the Lazovsky Reserve: (Primorye region)  *This image is copyright of its original author Female Ussuri brown bear in the Durminskoye Game Reserve: (Khabarovsk region)  *This image is copyright of its original author https://www.facebook.com/amurtigercenter...0194942173 An adult female Ussuri brown bear from "Land of the Leopard" National Park in Primorsky Krai:  *This image is copyright of its original author As these images & videos clearly show, the bears that are regularly hunted and killed by Amur tigers are large, robust and powerful animals. Conclusions: Research shows that tigers prey on large bears, as confirmed and reported by numerous biologists, zoologists and researchers. And do kill large bears with a bite to the base of the skull. Recent sources (Dunishenko, Aramilev, 2021) also confirms this. Its an indisputable fact that Amur tigers hunt and kill large bears. (Kerley, Batalov, Matyushkin, Baikov, Dunishenko, Tkachenko, Rakov etc) When tigers prey on large bears, quite often these attacks turn into face-to-face confrontations, in which the tiger, in most cases, still ends up killing and devouring the bear. Ambushing large, powerful and robust carnivores of similar size (or heavier) is a dangerous game, but the tiger is a master at it and prevails in most fights. According to Tkachenko's studies & observations (see Tiger predation on Bears - PART 1) tigers routinely hunt adult (both sexes) Himalayan bears, and individuals of all ages and genders are killed and eaten by tigers. This is also confirmed by Sergey Kolchins recent observations. Tkachenko also observed and reported that male tigers more often hunted large adult brown bears. Evidence clearly shows that both male and female tigers prey on adult bears of similar size and heavier bears, which refutes the false assumption of tigers only hunting "smaller" bears. Its a fact that tigers predate on bears of many sizes, from large, medium to small. Not only did biologist Linda Kerley confirm that tigers hunt and kill the largest and healthiest female brown bears, but she also stated that she's seen tigers prey on all shapes and sizes of black bears, which clearly indicates that she's also seen the largest black bears hunted and killed by tigers. Renowned Russian biologist & zoologist, Matyushkin also stated that large bears are prey for male tigers. Tigers are big game hunters, they prefer to hunt large animals. Because so much energy is spent locating prey and killing it, hunting large animals is more efficient than hunting smaller ones. By doing this, tigers maximize their energetic return. Large animals provide more meat for the tiger, thats why male tigers in particular, often hunt and kill large bears, which provide more meat than a small bear. All in all, it would be completely illogical and ignorant to deny the fact that tigers hunt and kill large brown and black bears. Evidence, accounts and testimonies from various experts & biologists confirms that they do.
Here's some additional information on tigers hunting large adult bears. After this post, tigers and bears in indigenous peoples culture and Amur tiger predation on bears - PART 2 is coming up, this will then conclude my series on tigers and bears. But any new information, accounts or data I find on this subject, I will continue to post it in the Extinction thread.
Russian special correspondent 'MK' who took part in an investigation with leading Amur tiger expert 'Pavel Fomenko' stated in his report, that Amur tigers fight with adult bears and almost always win. One tiger killed a bear and dragged its carcass for several kilometers:  *This image is copyright of its original author https://www.mk.ru/social/2014/12/18/v-kh...00-kg.html He mentions that they followed the tracks of a tiger that killed a bear and dragged its carcass for several kilometers, and he was amazed by the tigers strength for doing this. This indicates that the bear was most likely a large bear or at least a good-sized adult bear, for him to be impressed at the tigers strength for dragging the bears carcass for a distance of several kilometers. His statement of tigers even fighting with adult bears (brown & black) and almost always winning, again, confirms that not only do tigers attack and kill adult bears, but also win most fights against them. It also strongly suggests that predation on large adult bears by tigers, quite often lead to face-to-face fights, in which the tiger in almost every case, kills and eats the bear. Sergey Kolchin, a leading zoologist, biologist & researcher, reports that large prey like bears can stand up for themselves (fight back) when attacked by tigers: "But this is if the tiger's teeth are in order. And, of course, the paws, with the help of which the tiger makes throws, grabs and holds the caught prey. Red deer and wild boars, not to mention bears (the usual prey of adult male tigers), are able to stand up for themselves with dignity." http://debri-dv.com/article/5993 Bears (especially large individuals) are powerful, well equipped and robust animals that can sometimes successfully repel the attack of a tiger. Its for this reason, as the reporter mentions, that Amur tigers are at the top of the food-chain. Franz Hafner, who visited the Bikin Valley in Sikhote-Alin (2021) to film wild Amur tigers, also acknowledged the fact that in this region of the Far East of Russia, bears are displaced from the top position in the food-chain because the tigers hunt and kill the bears in this region. Hafner mentions that in other regions (devoid of tigers) of Russia, bears are apex predators, but not in the Far East, because bears are hunted and eaten by tigers. Narrator mentions: "In Russia, some bears have taken to living in tree nests like frightened birds, and its all because of the biggest cat on earth." Wildlife biologist & large carnivore specialist, Aletris Neils states: "You think of bears as top of the food-chain, but not where there's tigers. Tigers have been documented killing both black bears and brown bears where they co-exist with them." Watch the full documentary here; There's also some interesting facts about the tigers legendary strength & power, and its ability to single-handedly kill 1 ton gaurs and wild buffaloes: https://www.dailymotion.com/video/x6u1n3u Tiger predation is the main natural cause of brown bear mortality: Monitoring, Survey, Utilization And Threats To The Populations Of Asiatic Black Bear And Brown Bear In Sikhote-Alin Pikunov D.G., Seryodkin I.V. "The annual increase in the population of brown bears is approximately 38%, and natural mortality is 25-30% (Yudin, 1993). The main natural cause of their death is the predation by the tiger." Access full text (study) here: https://global.wcs.org/Resources/Publica...00000.aspx In other regions of the Far East of Russia like Kamchatka Peninsula and some western & central regions of Siberia, the brown bears can live peacefully because they lack natural predators. But in the south of the Far East, the Ussuri brown bear has a natural predator and lives in a much more dangerous area and region, because their faced with a massive apex predator like the tiger, that actively hunts bears in this region. Tiger predation on brown bears is probably the reason why Ussuri brown bears are more aggressive than their Kamchatka & Siberian cousins who lack natural predators. The more dangerous the neighborhood, the more aggressive and dominant you need to be in order to survive. This probably explains why the Ussuri (Himalayan black bear) black bear, which are also regularly preyed on by tigers, are far more aggressive and fierce than the more docile American black bears:  *This image is copyright of its original author https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/T...frontcover Large bears (Kaplanov, Heptner, Sludskii) have a thick fat-layer (and muscle) at the nape of their necks, which prevents the tiger from making a quick kill in most cases. The same thing applies to large wild boars. In most cases, when tigers predate on large bears and large male wild boars, the tiger ends up in a intense struggle, having to fight, grapple and subdue the large bear or boar when making the kill. The fact that throughout history, cases of large bears and large wild boars killing or severely injuring tigers being very rare, speaks volumes of the tigers prowess and capabilities at hunting, fighting and killing large, robust, well armed and dangerous animals of similar-size or larger. Biologist & zoologist, A. Sludsky in his book: "Lord of the Jungle" states: "Among animals, an adult tiger has no enemies. Only very rare cases are known when he died from wounds inflicted on him by a wild boar, buffalo or brown bear, who were defending against his attack." http://animalkingdom.su/books/item/f00/s...t031.shtml What this shows, is that the tigers physical anatomy and attributes are specifically designed for this purpose. The sheer power of the jaw, having the largest canines of all the worlds terrestrial carnivores, the massive skull and huge, robust and muscular forelimbs combined with supreme speed, strength, explosive power, size and agility, renders the tiger to be a dominant and formidable apex predator that is created to routinely hunt and kill large, dangerous prey animals and large carnivores. Many people overlook this fact, they simply can't fathom why a tiger would view a large bear as food. Hunting a large powerful carnivore is always a dangerous game, but the tiger is physically built to do this (size, speed, strength, power, agility) has all the deadly weapons in its arsenal and is a master at killing. In the Ukrainian Newspaper 'Svoboda' ("Freedom") an article was published about the Amur tiger, in which a Russian researcher talks about the tigers great ferocity and courage, and how the tiger even attacks and kills big brown bears, and after a fierce struggle, overcomes the bear:  *This image is copyright of its original author https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/%...frontcover Tiger hunting a large brown bear It is well known (observed by biologists, game rangers & hunters) that tigers follow the tracks of bears when hunting them. Biologist Kaplanov has also observed this. Biologist E.N. Smirnov observed the tracks of a tiger that was persistently hunting down a large brown bear:  *This image is copyright of its original author  *This image is copyright of its original author  *This image is copyright of its original author https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SoAM...&q&f=false Biologist Kaplanov states that tigers hunt bears more frequently than some people assume, and mentions a case of a tiger hunting a bear by following its tracks: The tiger hunts bears more frequently than one might suppose. On November 9, 1940, the reserve guard, V. Spiridonov, observed that a tiger, having coming upon the track of a bear while going downstream along the Kema River (up to its tributary the Chima River), followed after the bear." https://aboutzoos.info/images/stories/fi...e_Alin.pdf A tiger was observed hunting down a male brown bear for a distance of more than 500 meters before killing him: "In the winter of 1982, the main forester of the reserve Kirst and A.D Saiko observed the pursuit by a tiger of a male brown bear for more than 500 meters. Attacking a bear running away along the valley of the key from the terrace of the narrow end of the water business, and without killing him, the tiger slipped to intercept the bear hundreds of meters from where it made a new attack from an ambush, trying to cling to his neck, the tiger managed to get a male bear as a result."  *This image is copyright of its original author https://www.researchgate.net/publication...is_altaica A tiger was even observed following the tracks (hunting) of a huge brown bear. The tiger hunted down the massive bear, attacked and badly mauled it: I don't know if the bear was killed or not, as I couldn't find the rest of the account.  *This image is copyright of its original author  *This image is copyright of its original author  *This image is copyright of its original author There's plenty of authentic information and observations from various biologists and hunters that confirms that tigers prey on large brown bears. Once a tiger (especially male tigers) is experienced at hunting bears, they will start regularly hunting large adult bears as well. Tkachenko's observations also confirm this. There's no doubt that 'large' and 'very large' brown bears have been hunted and killed by tigers. Amur tigers and bears in indigenous peoples culture coming up next .... In this post, information will be presented about the rank and status of tigers and brown bears in the native peoples views and culture.
WILD AMUR TIGERS IN NORTHEASTERN CHINA - RECENT INFORMATION - I
1 - Introduction When discussing Amur tigers, most of us immediately think of the Russian Federation. As a result of an outspoken longterm policy, new laws, a (unique) rehabilitation center and a lot of dedicated people, the Russian Far East now has 550-600 wild Amur tigers. Quite an achievement, as Amur tigers really walked the edge in the thirties and forties of the previous century. Only few know northeastern China also has 50-60 Amur tigers. In one district, females are breeding again. As a result of a new policy and a number of new reserves, the situation in the northeastern part of China has improved considerably in the last decade. This series has 2 posts, maybe 3. In the first of these, you'll find 3 recent articles about the situation in northeastern China. In the second, I'll post an article about a man kneedeep involved in Amur tiger research. Feng Limin deserves as much attention as any other biologist involved in habitat rehabilitation and tiger conservation. The second post also has recent information about the weight of some wild male Amur tigers captured and weighed in the northeastern part of China. All pictures posted in that paragraph were first posted by our member 'Apex Titan' in the thread 'Amur Tigers'. I might decide for a third (and maybe even a fourth) post. If I do, I'll need to scan quite a few pages of books I bought some time ago. All of them have (authentic) stories written by those who hunted in northeastern China a long time ago. Back then (over a century ago), Manchuria in particular was known as a 'sea of forest'. Most of it is gone, but the northeastern part of China still has a lot of forest and reforestation has priority in China these days. If the Chinese decide to protect all of it, chances are that part of China will be a safe haven for the Amur tiger (as well as many other species) in the near future. 2 - Recent articles about the situation in northeastern China In this paragraph, you'll find a few articles informing you about the policy of China and the situation in the northeastern part of China. I'll start with an article of Kathleen McLaughlin (2016). It was published just before China created the largest tiger refuge in the world (the Northeast Tiger Leopard National Park or NTLNP). When scanning the article, unfortunately, a few sentences were lost. You can find the article on the internet. 2a - 'Can a new park save China's big cats?, McLaughlin (K), 17-08-2016  *This image is copyright of its original author  *This image is copyright of its original author  *This image is copyright of its original author  *This image is copyright of its original author 2b - 'Wild Siberian tigers rebound in China; more captured by wildlife cameras', Xi (Chen), Yuqiao (Ji) and Yuche (Li), article in The Global Times, published 27-01-2022 In this article, published two months ago, you'll find a bit more about the new Northeast Tiger Leopard National Park (NTLNP), the cooperation between the Chinese and the Russians, the monitoring system used in the NTLNP in particular and the (far reaching) measures taken to protect the habitat:  *This image is copyright of its original author  *This image is copyright of its original author  *This image is copyright of its original author 2c - 'The cat is back: Wild Amur tigers rebound in China, thanks to govt policies', Alberts (EC), 21-09-2021 Here's another good one. Although posted by 'Apex Titan' in the thread 'Amur Tigers' some time ago, I decided for a repost in this thread. Researchers think the new Northeast Tiger leopard National Park (NTLNP) could accomodate up to 300-320 Amur tigers (...). Interesting read:  *This image is copyright of its original author  *This image is copyright of its original author  *This image is copyright of its original author 3 - Map I read a lot of articles about the situation in northeastern China. Most of them were interesting, but I decided for the three posted above. Unfortunately, not one of them had a nice map. This paragraph has. I found it in a WWF article. The map, however, isn't from the WWF, but from a recent publication in which Miquelle was involved as well (Qi et al., 2021, see above and the bottom of the map). It shows the present (2021) range of the Amur tiger in northeastern China. Females seem to be breeding in Laoyeling only, but that could change in the near future. The new Northeast Tiger Leopard National Park (NTLNP) is surrounded by a red line (bottom of the map). Right at the bottom, you'll see an arrow pointing towards 'Northwestern Primorshy Krai'. My guess is they meant 'Southwestern Primorshy Krai'.  *This image is copyright of its original author 4 - Conclusions This post has 3 recent articles about the Amur tiger situation in northeastern China today. Researchers think this part of China, now home to 50-60 tigers, could accomodate 300-320 Amur tigers in the near future. If this goal is achieved, northeastern China and the Russian Far East could have up to 1,000 adult Amur tigers in a few decades from now. A singular achievement in a time in which the natural world is struggling just about everywhere. The model used in northeastern China and the Russian Far East could be the only one offering our planet (and our species) a decent chance (referring to pollution, climate change and weather extremes in particular). My guess is we have no other option but to create a lot of new national parks and reserves in regions that still offer that opportunity as soon as possible. The more difficult part (limiting the room used by our species and implementing new, less polluting, methods of production) will take a lot more time. To be continued.
Information on Franz Hafner's new documentary on wild Amur tigers.
AMUR TIGER - MASTER OF THE TAIGA The owner of the Ussuri taiga. Photo courtesy of the film crew.  *This image is copyright of its original author For thousands of years, mighty tigers have been the masters of the Ussuri taiga. One of the largest wild cats in the world rightfully occupied a dominant position in the animal kingdom of the Far East. However, over time, formidable predators have serious rivals - people. About two hundred years ago, they began to actively hunt Amur tigers and almost completely destroyed the entire livestock in the wild. The man came to his senses almost at the last moment. Striped beauties were taken under reliable protection and saved from extinction. The fascinating film "The Amur Tiger - Master of the Taiga" tells about the return of the population of these rare predators to a full life, their present, future, as well as coexistence with people. The premiere of the documentary, filmed by Austrian filmmakers with the grant support of the Russian Geographical Society, will take place on Saturday, - The filming took place in different places of the Khabarovsk Territory and Primorye - on the Bikin River, in the Sikhote-Alin Mountains, in the Anyui National Park. I name just a few places. This is a story about the successful return of the Amur tiger to the wild, thanks to conservation measures taken by the Russian nature protection agencies and the energetic actions of many people who work in the reserves. We are talking about a completely new situation in the Ussuri taiga. About how it is possible to organize the coexistence of people and big wild cats and how the future of the Amur tiger may look like , - the director of the documentary Franz Hafner shared with the readers of the RGS website. Directed by Franz Hafner. Photo courtesy of the film crew.  *This image is copyright of its original author "Amur Tiger - Master of the Taiga" is not the first experience of working in Russia for the Austrian director, journalist and photographer specializing in wildlife projects. In 2012, his team began filming a three-episode film about the Amur, one of the longest and mightiest Russian rivers. The film was released in 2015. Three years later, viewers saw the two-part picture "Wild Sea of Russia" - a declaration of love for nature and people on the coast of the Sea of \u200b\u200bOkhotsk. — The film about the Amur tiger was our third project in Russia. Why is the movie about him? Many years ago, when I was still working at the Institute for the Biology of Wildlife Species in Vienna, my specialization was birds of the grouse tribe. One of our research projects took us to the Russian Far East, to the Amur. There we studied a rare and little-known species - wild grouse. We spent three years next to this charming bird. And more than once we noticed that a male tiger roams around us. The size of his paw prints were very impressive. Since then, I began to be interested in this beast. But to be interested in tigers and plan to make a film about them -it's a big difference that we quickly realized. A thorough knowledge of this species, the help of local scientists and friends, as well as a well-established film crew are needed, Hafner said. The main character is in the frame. Photo courtesy of the film crew.  *This image is copyright of its original author The documentary film "The Amur Tiger - Master of the Taiga" was produced with the support of the Russian Geographical Society, the government of the Khabarovsk Territory, the Amur Tiger Center, as well as jointly with the Directorate of Documentary Films of Channel One JSC, the Austrian television and radio company ORF and National Geographic. The project was approved by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation. The main shooting took place on the territory of the Khabarovsk Territory and Primorye, in the National Park "Land of the Leopard", in the Anyui National Park, the Bikin National Park, the Sikhote-Alin Reserve. Film directed by Franz Hafner. Cameramen - Oliver Indra, Oleg Kabalik, Dietrich Heller. Producer: Alexander Bundtzen. The film crew included inspectors, researchers and other employees of Russian nature reserves. Udege guide Klim. Photo courtesy of the film crew.  *This image is copyright of its original author According to Hafner, it is very difficult to see a tiger in the taiga, because he always feels the presence of a person. Shooting with a handheld camera is almost impossible - the animals "pose" for no longer than ten seconds, so 60 camera traps came to the aid of the filmmakers. At the same time, you still need to know where predators go, it is necessary to take into account the peculiarities of their behavior. The group did the first reconnaissance for almost six months. During this time, the authors of the picture evaluated many places and only then decided where they would work. The tigers were also photographed manually at close range, but mostly they worked with camera traps. — "The Amur tiger - Master of the taiga" is a success story. I hope that our efforts will pay off and the film will find its audience around the world , - admitted Hafner. The Russian Geographical Society has been supporting the Amur Tiger project since 2010 . Its goal is to study the state of the population of a rare predator, develop scientific foundations for the conservation of this animal, and draw public attention to the problem of its protection in Russia. https://www.rgo.ru/ru/article/amurskiy-t...0%BB%D0%B0 The Ussuri taiga is a unique region of our planet, one of the last where the pristine nature is still preserved. Typical animals of the northern forests - deer, elk and wolves coexist here with representatives of the subtropical fauna - leopards, Himalayan bears and tigers. A bizarre combination not found anywhere else in the world. The owners of the Ussuri taiga are considered to be the Amur tigers - the largest representatives of the cat family. They are at the top of the pyramid of the animal world of the Ussuri taiga, and even bears can become their prey. But most often, tigers prey on large ungulates: wild boars, red deer, elk and roe deer. Preserving the integrity of the taiga ecosystem is of paramount importance for them, so the Amur tigers have become a symbol of the primeval nature of this region. The dexterity and cunning of tigers from time immemorial aroused the respect of the Udege, one of the indigenous peoples of the Far East. These born hunters have always regarded tigers as sacred animals and have never attacked them first. The tigers, in turn, have learned to be afraid of not so defenseless people and avoid meeting with them. Therefore, tigers and people could live in the same territory and use the same resources. Mutual respect has become a prerequisite for "peaceful coexistence". Everything changed when the Russians and the Chinese came to the Far East: they began to destroy adult tigers, sell their organs for the needs of Chinese traditional medicine, and catch young animals and transfer them to zoos. Amur tigers are on the verge of extinction: in just 200 years, their population has decreased from several thousand to 40-50 individuals. Literally at the last moment, they managed to stop the uncontrolled shooting of tigers and develop measures to protect them. These measures have achieved their goal: at present, more than five hundred tigers live in the Far Eastern taiga. A special merit in the conservation of these animals belongs to Russia: in recent decades, vast protected areas have been created, huge funds have been allocated to preserve the living space of tigers, and poaching is being successfully combated. The restoration of the tiger population and their spread over large areas are forcing people and tigers to re-learn how to live next to each other. This is not at all easy, especially for people who consider themselves "the crown of creation." This documentary allows you to learn more about the life of the Amur tigers: see rare footage of tigresses caring for their offspring, males marking their territory, tiger hunting. An integral part of the film is the animals hunted by tigers: spotted deer and gorals, wild boars and bears - without them, tigers would not have survived. https://www.1tv.ru/doc/stati/amurskiy-ti...film-anons https://www.vl.ru/tv/cast/3346/8149787/event/2105192796 The Siberian Tiger - Soul of the Russian Wilderness Powerful, dangerous and charismatic: the Siberian tiger is the largest wild cat in the world. How did director Franz Hafner come up with the idea for this film?: “When I was in the Far East of Russia for the first time, I came across the fresh track of a tiger in the winter forest. It was incredibly large, the size of a soup plate. My Russian friends then told me about their experiences with tigers, the unique habitat, the cold, the hunting skills. For them, the tiger was the soul of the Russian wilderness, the epitome of wildness and the power of nature. Ever since then I have been fascinated by the big cats and the desire to make a documentary about them arose.” And Franz Hafner continues: “In the jungle of the Far East, the tiger is the master. It feels strange walking through the forest and knowing an animal nearby that - stronger and equipped with better senses - could kill you at any moment. A story about tigers is also a story about wilderness, about our origins and our future place in nature. As powerful, clever and superior as the tiger is, it will only survive if we humans want it to survive.”  *This image is copyright of its original author https://tv.orf.at/program/orf2/universum238.html  (04-02-2022, 07:54 PM)GreenGrolar Wrote: here is another interesting account: Out of topic, but in the line with tigers. It is stated that the maximum distance known to be travelled by a tiger is 1,000 km (Nowell & Jackson, 1993). With this in mind and with this type of records of huge travels from Russia and India, is used to prove that there is no natural barriers in Asia (appart from deserts or high mountains) that can stop a tiger for moving from one part to another one, not even the large rivers. Knowing this, there is no reason why a young male Amur tiger could not travel to South China and mate with the females there, or a Bengal tiger traveling to the Myanmar and make its home there. Based in this, and the fact that the differences between "subspecies" are based in very few specimens, that is why modern scientists believe that there are not "subspecies" per se, but just populations with clinal variations or particular adaptations. The genetic evidence will only suggest modern separations caused by humans, and will support the idea that the modern "subspecies" are just artificial populations created by the intervention of humans. I think that the subspecies issue is a very interesting theme, with real discussions in the academic groups between the "spliters" and the "lumpers". I will like to go deeper in these topic too, and this shows how interesting is to study tigers without the need to constantly put it in irracional conflicts with other animals (like lions, for example). (04-06-2022, 12:29 AM)GuateGojira Wrote:(04-02-2022, 07:54 PM)GreenGrolar Wrote: here is another interesting account: I wonder if the movement of Pleistocene tigers was similar, more, or less. Without human barriers and better prey base, do tigers move more or less. It also makes the fossil record of P. spelaea and P. tigris in that northern zone more interesting. Here is a vegetation map from the LGM. There is forest all throughout south Asia. The only barriers happen in China and further north as it is steppe tundra. Any tigers who snuck through corridors probably then got isolated. When we look at morphology of skull, there is a lot of overlap between the southern populations. Just in the occiput itself, southern forms often have a narrow occiput and the fossil record from even China shows similar. It is only Amur and Caspian tigers that seem to lack this so they must have had some significant separation event.  *This image is copyright of its original author  *This image is copyright of its original author Tagging @GrizzlyClaws here as we have discussed this topic together in depth for quite a while now and he is well-versed on the fossil record.
If we look at the most recent study on tiger subspecies divergences, we see it is all generally after the start of the Holocene, mixed in with drastic sea level and vegetation/biome shifts.
 *This image is copyright of its original author For the Sumatran tiger, the split happens just after the islands are isolated. Take a look at this sea level graph.  *This image is copyright of its original author When sea levels reached 20 m less than today, the islands were separated as the maps by Voris (2000). This sea level occurs around the split of the Sumatran tiger (~9 kya). So at least until that point, all populations mixed. Malaysian tigers probably began to separate as the peninsula narrowed, leaving less land mass for tigers to pass through, akin to the Sunda tiger separation. Based on studies that show the northeast China did not have forests until at least 14 kya, Amur tigers likely did not even exist prior to that point, also bridging the genetic gap.
And as a followup, a quick discussion of the vegetation shifts of the Russian Fear Primor'ye region. These are vegetation studies (1 and 2). Please also refer to the sea level diagram in my last post. Lower sea levels are associated with colder and dryer conditions which cause open landscapes, and warmer and more humid times make forests.
The study region:  *This image is copyright of its original author Next, the vegetations shifts. We see that prior the Holocene, the region was more open and a scrubland which would limit the presence of the forest-dwelling tigers. As we enter the Holocene (warming), forests take over. This will allow the entry of the tiger. Here is their table:  *This image is copyright of its original author Now to get to the Primor-ye, the tiger would have to pass through the northeast China corridor. It cannot use any pathway further west as those landscapes are open as in this map:  *This image is copyright of its original author So we look at the vegetation shifts in northeast China. Per this study, we learn the following: 1. Steppe extended as far as the Songnen plain at the last glacial maximum (LGM) and only the far coastal regions had some forest. The green area is the Songnen plain:  *This image is copyright of its original author So at this point, the presence of the tiger in this region and further north is unlikely or at least less so. Then as in the study mentioned in my last post, forests finally appeared in the region around 14 kya. However, the denseness of the forest probably took longer to increase as climate had to warm more first. This again would limit the presence of the tiger. So what we can put together is that the tiger did not have much of a chance to enter what classify as the Amur tiger's range until the end of the Pleistocene. After that, there does not seem to be a clear moment of separation of the population. However, Chlachula et al. (2016) do note that there was "a broadening of open landscapes and mosaic parklands in the main river valleys during the mid Holocene is linked with the expansion of the Far Eastern Neolithic cultures based on a herding pastoralist economy and who practiced forest clearance for pastures as is well-documented in the nearby Iman Valley between ca. 5,000-4,000 cal yrs BP." The location of the Iman Valley sites:  *This image is copyright of its original author The increase in open landscapes due to human presence probably began fragmenting the forests at this point, giving us a geographic barrier between the Amur population and the rest as tigers stick to forest boundaries. The collection of these findings coincides very well with the divergence range of the Amur tiger (3.25 kya-8.12 kya).
TIGERLUVER
Three very interesting posts about climate, vegetation and living conditions in northeastern China and Primorye in the Holocene. Many thanks on behalf of all interested in wild Amur tigers. The information you posted suggests tigers entered this region less than 10,000 years ago. Some think they entered from the west, whereas others think they entered from the south and spread to the Altai Mountains and the Caspian region later. What are your thoughts? All authors of the books I read wrote about the outspoken differences between the seasons in this region. V.K. Arseniev ('Dersu the trapper', 1941, 1996) more than once saw valleys in which almost all trees had been flattened by violent storms. The climate seems to be far from stable. Are the frequent and sudden weather changes a result of the climate or are they a result of climate change? And what about the forests? Are they on their way out or is the opposite true? As a result of the conservation policy of the Russians and the Chinese, the conditions in the Russian Far East and northeastern China are improving. The number of herbivores is growing and tigers are responding. In a few decades from today, this region could accomodate as much as 1,000 adult tigers. In spite of the large number of herbivores, tigers hunt both Himalayan black bears and Ussuri brown bears (almost) up to their own size, especially in summer and autumn. This although bears can be dangerous for adult tigers. Any ideas as to the possible reason(s)? Last question. Reliable information collected between 1850-1950 and recent information suggests wild Indian tigers, and those living in the northern and northeastern part in particular, seem to be heavier than wild Amur tigers. Recent information from the northern part of Primorye and northeastern China, however, suggest wild male Amur tigers exceed 250 kg (552 pounds) more often than was assumed. Did Amur tigers respond to better conditions, or did biologists underestimate the average size of Amur tigers in the recent past (referring to the overview of hunting records of Slaght et al. and the table published in 2005)? At the level of averages, captive Amur tigers (referring to the tables recently posted in the tiger extinction thread) seem to be the largest subspecies by a margin. Skulls of both captive and wild Amur tigers (Mazak, 1967, 1983) also are larger (longer) than those of other subspecies. It would be appreciated if you could post a copy of this post and your reply in the tiger extinction thread.
Credited to Chinese poster 'goodhope683'.
Here's a interview with wildlife biologist & field researcher 'Feng Limin', confirming the weight of a very large wild male Amur tiger weighing over 250 kg! About 15-20 seconds into the video, Limin states: "The largest male Amur tiger I know of and have come into contact with weighs over 250 kg." Here's another huge male tiger with a massive skull, from Hunchun Nature Reserve in Northeast China: Recent camera trap photos and videos from Northeast China are frequently capturing some really large and very powerfully built male Amur tigers. The young adolescent wild male tiger aged 3 years old recently captured in Northeast China for attacking a villager and smashing in a car window, weighed (confirmed) 225 kg as a immature male, when fully-grown, its possible that this young male tiger could weigh 250+kg. This indicates that Northeast China is producing some of the largest wild male Amur tigers in the world today, along with the huge male tigers from the Khabarovsk region in the Russian Far East. Amur tigers in these regions seem to definitely rival the biggest male Bengal tigers. Except that wild Amur tigers usually have a more massive skull, larger canines and larger paws than Bengal tigers.  (04-12-2022, 06:13 PM)Apex Titan Wrote: Here's a interview with wildlife biologist & field researcher 'Feng Limin', confirming the weight of a very large wild male Amur tiger weighing over 250 kg! Historically, Amur and Bengal tigers are the biggest tiger subspecies/populations and thankfully both are still alive. Although they are about the same body size, there are variations on the body mass and skull structure: the Amur tiger has a more massive skull, with bigger sagital crest and broader mouth. About the canines, they are equal, as both reach the 7.5 cm in the largest specimens. In the paws, Amur tigers had the broarder ones, but this is in funcion of its habitat, they need it to move on the snow, and by the way I remember an unconfirmed report that Caspian tigers had bigger paws and the largest claws of all populations, but sadly I lost the source of that claim and I did not found it in any of the books and documents that I have, so we can discard it. About the body mass, definitelly Amur tigers did reached body masses of over 250 kg in the past and we have reliable records about it, however in modern days, and at 2012, the heaviest wild male reported was of 212 kg. However, there are unpublished reports of big males, like the ones that you are mentioning here. As far I know there is the young male of 225 kg, the male of 250 kg mentioned in this video and other report of a male of 270 kg. This looks great for the population, but the problem is that we don't have a real report about them, no document or anything that we can use to confirm them. In fact, we don't know if those are only estimations like in many cases with Bengal tigers and African lions in the news reports and we don't even have personal communications to corroborate. In order to accept these figures, we need real confirmation of them, if not, I think that we can't use them yet, in order to avoid the inclution of incorrect information in the records. By the way, I was checking the records of the weights of these two populations (Amur vs Bengal) and I noted that when we separate the old and new records, it shows that the Amur tiger was in fact the heaviest tiger and the biggest member of the Felidae family before to great massacre of 1950 and beyond. Next there is a very simple but information table that I made very fast, and shows that variation. So, in modern times (and overall) there is no doubth that Bengal are the heaviest, but in the past, Amur tigers were on the top, on average at least.  *This image is copyright of its original author These are "weighted" values, and exclude Sundarbans tigers following Singh et al. (2015). (04-12-2022, 06:23 PM)Pckts Wrote: You’d still need real verification of this males alleged weight. The post of 'Apex Titan' I'm preparing a post on Feng Limin. I scanned an interesting article and added information I recently got from our member 'Betty'. The database of 'Betty', who is able in Chinese and has access to solid information (peer-reviewed documents), is extended and reliable. According to 'Betty', tigers have been weighed in northeastern China in the last decade. One of them was the young adult male recently discussed in this forum (referring to the male that 'attacked' a field worker and smashed a car window). He really was 225 kg (497-498 pounds). At least 2 others reached or exceeded 250 kg (552 pounds). I agree peer-reviewed documents are more reliable than anything else. The information posted by 'Apex Titan', however, is from a reliable source: Feng Limin. According to 'Betty', he has been active on a Chinese platform. In one of his contributions, he wrote one male tiger captured (and weighed) by one of his collegues was 270 kg (597 pounds). I'll ask 'Betty' to post the link in this thread. Size of Amur tigers today As to the size of male Amur tigers today. Most of those who know think tigers in the northern part of Primorye (Khabarowski Krai) are larger than their relatives in the southern part. I'm not only referring to the famous male known as 'The Beast', but also to the observations of Hafner. His great documentary was recently discussed in two posts in this thread. Here's the photograph posted by our former mod 'Wolverine' some years ago. This male was photographed well west of all reserves:  *This image is copyright of its original author This male, also known as 'The Beast' because of his size, has a pad width of 13,5 cm:  *This image is copyright of its original author Here he's again. The old male brown bear next to him, although a tad shorter, is more robust and heavier. Although they're neighbours, the one who knows both said there never was a problem:  *This image is copyright of its original author One could say the table published in 2005 ('Morphological indicators (cm) of adult specimens of wild Amur tiger, caught in the Sichote-Alin Biosphere Reserve and its environs; data for the 1992-2004 biennum', in: 'Tigers in the Sichote-Alin Zapovednik: Ecology and conservation', Miquelle (DG), Smirnov (EN) and Goodrich (JM), 2005) was misleading to a degree. The information, to be sure, was correct, but the table included young adults and a male in bad condition. If the information about the weight of the males recently captured in northeastern China is correct, researchers may need to rewrite the chapter about the size of wild Amur tigers today. The maximum weight (males) apparently well exceeds 212 kg. Size of Amur tigers in the recent past (1890-1970) Appendix 6.1 ('Historical (up to 1970 g) literature data about the weight of Amur tiger with the observations on their reliability') in Chapter 6 of 'Tigers in the Sichote-Alin Zapovednik; ecology and conservation' (Vladivostok, 2005, in Russian) has information about 44 males mentioned in papers, articles and books published in the period 1903-1992. Of these 44, 8 exceeded 300 kg. They ranged between 320-390 kg. This is without the tiger shot in 1943 near the Sungari river (Manchuria) by a member of Jankowski's team. That tiger, 11.6 in total length measured 'over curves', was estimated at 300-350 kg ('Der Tiger', Mazak (V), 1983). A wild male Amur tiger exceeding 300 kg always was and will be exceptional, but the photograph in Mazak's book shows an exceptional male and the tables about the size of captive Amur tigers I recently posted in this thread suggest large (non-obese) males range between 270-320 kg. That is without the 4 tigers exceeding 350 kg in Chinese facilities (referring to information I got from 'Betty'). It's not superfluous to add that those able to get to an educated opinion (forest officers, hunters and writers) a century ago agreed captive tigers do not compare to their wild relatives. The reason is adult wild tigers are specialists. As a general rule, only the most able get to adulthood. This wasn't the case in British India only. The conditions in China (Manchuria), Russia and Korea, if anything, were as selective, if not more so. Exceptional individuals Over the years, I collected a lot of information about the size of wild and captive big cats. All in all, I'd say the differences between tigers in northern India, lions in southwestern Africa and tigers in the Russian Far East are quite limited at the level of averages (5-10%), but exceptions seem to be more common in tigers. For some reason, exceptional individuals are more often seen in the Russian Far East and northeastern China than in other regions, including India. This is what those able to get to an opinion (collectors, keepers, hunters, trainers and big cat biologists) told me as well. In large subspecies, the difference between an average male and an exceptional male (referring to weight) is 25-45%, but in Amur tigers the difference can be as much as 60%, at times considerably more. The number of exceptions and the amount of deviation seem to explain most of the difference at the level of averages. What I'm saying is it's quite likely wild Amur tigers today sizewise more or less compare to their relatives shot a century ago, including the exceptions. The effects of the population bottleneck (referring to the extermination of tigers in Korea, Manchuria and most of the Russian Far East in the first decades of the previous century) on the size of wild Amur tigers seems to be limited. One could, therefore, say conditions and population size could be as important as the loss of genetic information, but that's an assumption only. Tables and decisions If the big tiger recently weighed in northeastern China is confirmed in a peer-reviewed document, Baikov's 560-pound (254 kg) tiger will no longer top the official table. That tiger, by the way, was shot in 1911 in the same region. Another tiger (224 kg or 495 pounds) was accepted as well. All others he shot (228,5 kg; 320 kg; 163,6 kg; 147 kg; 130,6 kg; 160 kg; 390 kg; 250 kg; 260 kg; 325 kg; 325 kg and 240 kg) were classified as 'unreliable'. This although the 228,5 kg tiger was disembowelled before it was weighed (...). When I posted the tables about captive Amur tigers, I wrote about tables and decisions. Most of them have an arbitrary character, no matter what you try. Anyhow. The first tiger below was accepted by biologists. The second wasn't even mentioned. This in spite of the photograph and the details in Mazak's book (referring to the third edition). Here's the 560-pound (254 kg) tiger shot by Baikov near the Korean border in 1911:  *This image is copyright of its original author And here's the immense tiger shot in the summer of 1943 near the Sungari river (Manchuria) by Sin-En-Tschzin, a member of Jankowski's team:  *This image is copyright of its original author
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