All about Gaur (Bos gaurus)

[Roflcopters]

Threats [top] Major Threat(s): The set of threats and the gravity of each threat to Gaur differs greatly between south and central India, and Southeast Asia; China and most of northeast India are more similar to Southeast Asia in this respect (Farshid Ahrestani pers. comm. 2008), and are so treated in the following discussion.

In Indochina, Myanmar, and northeast India, hunting is the major problem, compounded by loss of suitable habitat: large tracts of suitable habitat hold few or no Guar. Ongoing habitat degradation and conversion is continually reducing the potential population, should hunting be brought under control (Duckworth et al. 1999; Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Timmins and Ou 2001; Choudhury 2002; Steinmetz 2004; Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006; R.J Timmins pers. comm. 2008; Farshid Ahrestani pers. comm. 2008). Hunting is often for meat and a variety of methods is used (Choudhury 2002). There is also a flourishing international trade in Gaur parts, both horns (decorative) and internal organs (for medicinal purposes). Given the small size of the remaining Southeast Asian subpopulations and the number of trophies found for sale in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, and Myanmar during essentially opportunistic surveys, trade is clearly a major threat (Srikosamatara et al. 1992; Baird 1993; Srikosamatara and Suteethorn 1994, 1995; Martin and Phipps 1996; Srifa La-Ong et al. 1997; Duckworth et al. 1999). The most important population in Cambodia is scattered through a forest landscape that encompasses four provinces (Mondulkiri, Kratie, Stung Treng and Ratanakiri) and five conservation areas (Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary, Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary, Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area, Mondulkiri Protection Forest (including the Srepok Wilderness area) and Phnom Nam Lyr Wildlife Sanctuary). Hunting is still rife in much of this area, and forest fragmentation is rapidly accelerating with human population immigration, infrastructural developments (especially roads), commercial agricultural expansion, economic land speculation and mineral extraction. However, although perhaps less than 20% of this area is well protected from the aforementioned threats and protected area management is only close to effective in two areas, the most significant constraint to the area’s Gaur is the long-term uncertainty of continuation of effective conservation management of the Srepok Wilderness Area and Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area. Although conservation efforts for Gaur and many other species are, in both these areas, extremely encouraging, both face an uncertain future with the possibility of degazettement of conservation status of parts of them, the possible loss of adequate external funding necessary to maintain high standards of management, the possible loss of political support necessary to uphold high protection standards and the uncertainties of maintaining a motivated well trained staff. Almost throughout Southeast Asia, protected areas are not yet stalling declines in mammals with commercial value, such as Gaur. Areas with stabilized populations (in addition to the two Cambodian areas, perhaps only a few areas in Thailand (see Population) and Cat Tien National Park in Viet Nam) are exceptional (R. Steimetz pers. comm. 2008; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).

Surprisingly, given its retention of healthy populations of other high-value very large mammals (Tiger and Asian Elephant Elephas maximus; Lynam et al. 2007; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008 for elephants), Malaysia has among the most rapidly declining populations of Gaur. This reflects targeted hunting for large mammals of high commercial value, even within protected areas (Abdul Kadir 1998; Wan Shahruddin 1998; Lynam 1999; DWNP/Danced 2002; Lynam et al. 2007). Given the rapid decline within the 1990s and the lack of information traced since 2002, the exact current situation of Gaur in Malaysia is unclear. Kemasul Forest Reserve, where the species was found in Laidlaw’s (2000) survey of virgin jungle reserves, probably no longer exists as such. Even at the time of survey, most of the Forest Reserve was due to be converted into an Acacia mangium plantation, although still nominally a Forest Reserve. Kemasul was, long ago, part of a massive block of lowland forest which included the famous Jengka Triangle and Krau "Game" Reserve. Only Krau remains, albeit much reduced (R. Dunlop pers. comm. 2008). Even Krau, which was set up (in 1923) principally for the protection of Gaur, numerous in the area then, faces multiple threats (R. Dunlop pers. comm. 2008). In the surveys for DWNP/DANCED (2002), evidence of hunting, including cartridges, was found within the reserve, particularly in the easily accessible lowland areas; there were plenty of hunting stories by and about all of the different local communities, without exception, although their preferred target species differed. Conversion from natural forest to other land-uses of adjacent state-land combined with new ease of access has undoubtedly made Krau more of a focal point for such activity. There is a new (metalled) road and land conversion right up to the boundaries, facilitating access and easing the use of hunting methods such as spotlighting, as well as reducing habitat. The salt licks (for which Krau used to be famous) increasingly fall outside the forest (reflecting shrinking reserve boundaries and farmland encroachment into the reserve) and are now mostly in zones of high human activity of one sort or another. Temporary grasslands generated through traditional indigenous farming, which were often fairly difficult to get to and thus relatively free from hunting, were previously important Gaur habitat. A forester who used to work in Malaysia in the 1940s said that Gaur herds used to follow the Orang Asli settlements, moving in when they moved out, and Weigum (1972) even recommended "...to maintain herds in the park it is recommended that 45 acres of land be clear-cut preferably in 15 acre plots ½ mile apart and be recut every three years". Gaur meat is, or at least was being, sold at restaurants in placed like Cameron and Grik.

In south and central India, densities are likely to be widely below ecological carrying capacity, through hunting and competition with domestic livestock, although this conclusion is based on rather few empirical studies and there are some outstanding populations in well-secured protected areas. Substantial declines and local extinctions of Gaur were driven by hunting (for meat), competition with livestock, and habitat conversion, particularly during the first half of the twentieth century, resulting in a drastically reduced and fragmented distributional range, especially outside the protected area network (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). Hunting is much less prevalent than in Southeast Asia, reflecting the general enforcement of wildlife protection laws (Farshid Ahrestani pers. comm. 2008). Nonetheless, even in high-profile reserves, it is still suppressing densities significantly. For example, densities in Bhadra Tiger Reserve are very low, because of poaching, by comparison with what the habitat should support (Jathanna et al. 2003), and the measured density in a heavily hunted area of Nagarahole National Park was only a third of that in a well secured area (Madhusudan and Karanth 2002). Even though all hunting is illegal in this protected area, preventive measures are uneven across it, and Gaur is still poached, at least sporadically, wherever protection effectiveness is low (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). In recent years Gaur, has reportedly been exterminated from three Indian protected areas, Thattekad Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala), Bhandhavgarh (Madhya Pradesh) and Kanger Valley National Park (Madhya Pradesh) (Pasha et al. 2004). Interaction with domestic stock is greatly under-appreciated as a threat to Gaur, but is probably the main factor which currently limits populations in south and central India: livestock are widely grazed even in otherwise well-managed protected areas. Mean densities of Gaur were fully 132 times higher in livestock-free areas than in adjacent livestock-grazed areas of Bandipur, and in shared grazing areas Gaur densities declined sharply with increasing livestock densities; in the grazed area studied, halving the livestock density allowed increases of Gaur by a factor of 57 (Madhusudan 2004). Threats to southern India’s forest ungulates by competition with domestic stock grazing within protected areas are exacerbated where dung is collected for export to adjacent coffee areas. Fuel wood removal may also be at levels sufficient to disrupt nutrient cycles of the habitat (Madhusudan 2005). Many Indian forest areas are severely encroached by exotics such as Lantana camara, Parthenium spp. and Chromolaena odorata, and these are suspected to effect major changes to forest structure (Hiremath and Sundaram 2005): but the effects of these on Gaur populations warrant further study. Killing of Gaur in retaliation to crop damage (through consumption and trampling) occurs, but is of limited significance to conservation (Choudhury 2002; Farshid Ahrestani pers. comm. 2008). Some animals also die from ingestion of agrochemicals, and human response when wandering into farmland and villages; these could be significant for already isolated and reduced populations (Choudhury 2002).

Throughout the range, diseases, particularly rinderpest and foot-and-mouth disease, transmitted by domestic cattle are a potentially serious threat. Foot-and-mouth is the most frequent, but rinderpest has had a particularly dramatic impact in India and several sub-populations of Gaur were nearly destroyed as a result of the disease in 1968 (Krishnan 1972; Pal and Guin 1986; Choudhury 2002), while in Bhadra, it nearly wiped out Gaur populations in 1988–1989, when nearly 800 individuals died (Girish D.V. pers. comm. 2008). In north and central Myanmar anthrax was a major factor in the decline of the species (Salter 1983). Pasha et al. (2004) considered that “in fact no wild animal in India [is] so profoundly influenced by transmitted infections from domestic livestock as Gaur”. There is little research or other evidence to determine impacts of introgression with domestic oxen on Gaur populations, although such factors might be expected to be most serious in India, given the wide overlap of domestic stock with Gaur. Farshid Ahrestani (pers. comm. 2008) saw a Gaur herd of 20 individuals far from human habitation with one domestic ox in the Palni Hills, so it seems likely that introgression occurs to at least some extent.

Srikosamtara and Suteethorn (1995) drew attention to the pressing threats facing Gaur, placing it in the same league of trade-driven threat as better-known species such as Tiger and Asian Elephant, and emphasising the international dimension of trade. Subsequently, the population collapse in Malaysia seems to have been driven by hunting teams from Lao PDR and Thailand (as proven by language at hunting camps in Temenggor), co-opting local Malaysian associates (A.J. Lynam pers. comm. 2008). It is reasonable to expect that when returns in Malaysia drop (as they probably have done already) these teams may turn their attention to other countries’ Gaur populations.
 

 

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