ON THE EDGE OF EXTINCTION - A - THE TIGER (Panthera tigris)

[peter]

THE FUTURE OF THE AMUR TIGER ACCORDING TO DMITRY PIKUNOV - PART III

f - The downside of success

In many documents published after 1992, researchers underline that Amur tigers thrive in relatively empty districts. In districts in which human activity is prominent, they do not. As a result of the increase of human activity in a number of districts, Amur tigers moved to empty districts (in the north) or to protected areas.

In the sixties, seventies and early eighties of the previous century, the increase in the number of tigers was limited. In the decades that followed, growth accelerated. In the protected areas, the limits were reached. That was not the only problem:

" ... The results of monitoring in 1995-1996 and 2005 confirmed that these predators continue to exist at the maximum population density in the protected areas. This pattern was observed in almost all of the previous counts, but it was less pronounced. Simultaneously, it became more apparent that reserves in small areas (i.e., Sichote-Alin, 401.600 ha; Lazovsky, 150,000 ha; and Ussurisky, 40,400 ha) will not be able to solve the problem of tiger conservation ... due to the disunity of those areas.  The solution to this problem requires a system of large reserves, including protected areas, that are connected with each other.

Unfortunately, given the current conditions, it does not seem possible to maintain a single, integrated tiger population numbering 450-500 mature individuals. There are no remaining appropiate continuous habitats in the Sichote-Alin that could maintain such a population. Therefore, the only way to ensure the long-term preservation of the integrity of the Ussuri taiga natural complex (of which the Siberian tiger is an essential component) is to create two new protected areas in the south of the Far East ... " (Pikunov, 2014, pp. 8).

g - Summary of the developments in the period  1930-2015

01 - Amur tigers were nearly hunted to extinction in the thirties and forties of the previous century. In 1940, there were only 20-30 tigers left in the entire Russian Far East.

02 - The only region where Amur tigers survived the unslaught was the southeastern part of Sichote-Alin.

03 - As a result of measures taken in fourties and fifties of the previous century, the number of tigers slowly increased.

04 - In spite of the increase in numbers, the territory used by tigers significantly decreased in the sixties.

05 - After 1970, as a result of protective measures, the territory used by tigers started to increase.

06 - Although the situation improved in the seventies, more than 130 tigers died in that decade alone. Most (78) were shot (by poachers or with permits), 37 cubs were captured alive for zoos (the ban on capturing cubs apparently had been lifted or softened) and 15 died of natural causes.

07 - In 1979, tigers occupied only two regions in Sichote-Alin: the southeastern part of the Sichote-Alin mountain range and the extreme southwestern part of Primorsky Krai. The southwestern part is separated from the northern part by a highway, a railroad and vast open spaces near Lake Khanka. Movements of tigers between both regions have not been registered in the seventies. As a result, two subpopulations developed in Primorsky Krai.

08 - The extreme southwestern part of Primorsky Krai has the best tiger habitat. The problem is that human activity in that regio is more intense than elsewhere in Sichote-Alin. As a result, tigers started moving to the northern part of Primorsky Krai once again. They reached the southern districts of the Khabarovski Krai and moved further north. The map below shows they reached Komsomolsk na Amure, well north of Khabarovsk.  

09 - Litter numbers and cub safety largely depends on the presence of humans. Tigers also know. This is why many females in particular moved into protected zones. This pattern became more apparent as the number of tigers increased. As a result of the increase in numbers, tiger density in the protected zones increased significantly.  

10 - As a result of the increase in the number of tigers, it became clear that the number of reserves is too limited. Most of the reserves are too small as well. Another problem is they are not connected. As there are no corridors, tigers moving out of the protected zones in search of territory can't always avoid humans. Most conflicts between tigers and humans could be a result of a lack of protected zones and corridors.

11 - The current conditions in Sichote-Alin do not allow for a single, integrated population of 400-500 mature tigers. The only way to ensure a long-term solution is to create two new protected areas in the southern part of Sichote-Alin.

12 - The northern buffer zone should include the entire area of the remaining middle course of the Bikin river (Pozharsky district), the basins of the Large Ussurska right tributaries (Krasnoarmejskiy district), the Sichote-Alin Reserve, the northeastern part of the Dalnerechensky district and the entire part of the Terneisky district to the Maksimova river basin. This area is approximately 35,000 square km. The southern buffer zone should encompass the Lazovsky and Olginsky districts, the Lazovsky Reserve and the adjacent parts of the Partyzansky and Kavalerovsky districts. This area is approximately 15,000 square km. In the proposed new protected zones, logging and hunting should be banned completely. It's also important to improve the level of game management in order to increase the number of ungulates.  

13 - Here's a map showing 4 of reserves (in green) in Sichote-Alin in 2000. As you can see, most of them are too small. They also are too far apart from each other. No corridors as well:

*This image is copyright of its original author

Here's map showing the two new zones proposed in Pikunov's article. The northern buffer zone is in red, whereas the southern is in green. It's a bit primitive, but it will give you a rough idea:

*This image is copyright of its original author

14 - The tiger counts in 1984-1985, 1995-1996 and 2004-2005 clearly show that tigers have expanded their range to the north of the Primorsky Krai. They also settled in the southern part of the Khabarovsky Krai. Simultaneously, reductions in tiger numbers have occurred in the central and southern regions of the Primorsky Krai. The reason is these regions have become more accessible for humans.

15 - In the reserves and other protected zones, tiger densities have reached the limit. The reason tigers moved into the reserves and protected zones is " ... degradation and detorioration of the habitats outside the protected zones ... " (Pikunov, 2014, pp. 10). As a result of new roads, illegal logging and poaching increased.

16 - Amur tigers occupied about 160,000 square km. in 2014. The proposed new protected zones " ... in combination with the existing protective areas, represent the minimum habitat that is absolutely necessary to guarantee the long-term preservation of the landscape and its constituent elements in the face of radical restructuring of the natural environment of the area of the Amur tiger in the future ... " (Pikunov, 2014, pp. 10).

17 - Two more maps showing the progress that has been made in the period 1970-2015.

Tiger footprint density (left) and number of individuals (right):

*This image is copyright of its original author

  

Tiger distribution 2015:

*This image is copyright of its original author

h - Summary
 
In 1858 (Treaty of Aygun) and 1860 (Treaty of Peking), Russia aquired the region now known as the Russian Far East. It was enormous in size and covered by a 'sea of forest'. The initial aim was to colonize it in the way the west had been colonized. Reality however quickly overtook ambition. The Chinese living in the new territories didn't quite agree with the transition. Not a few left the fields and decided for a very different way of life. Moving from one place to another all the time, they robbed many settlers and hunters. Others decided for a new way of hunting. Arseniev and Dersu discovered pitfalls exceeding a km. in length.  

The new settlers faced another problem in that the methods developed to cultivate wild country in western Europe and western Russia proved inadequate in the Russian Far East. As a result, they, like the Chinese, often decided for a different way of life. The destruction was of such proportions, that the Russian elites decided to intervene in the last decades of the 19th century. Although the measures taken had an effect, the destruction continued. In the first decade of the 20th century, Arseniev and Dersu thought that everything would be gone in a few decades. 

They were right. In the late thirties, there were 20-30 tigers left in the entire Russian Far East. Not long after Kaplanov rang the bell, WWII erupted. Those involved in destruction in some way or another were hunted down, expelled or drafted. The border was closed and measures were taken to protect tigers. Kaplanov never knew about the effect of his warning. In 1943, he was killed (see -i-). 

In 1947, hunting was banned. A decade later, a ban on capturing cubs was installed. Hunters were replaced by biologists and zoologists. Articles and books were published and measures were taken to protect the great natural wealth of the Russian Far East. It had an effect. Although tigers lost territory until 1970, the population slowly recovered from the unslaught. In the last decade of the 20th century, there were more than 400 tigers in the Russian Far East. From there, they spread to the extreme east of China.

Numberwise, Amur tigers have largely recovered. The problem is there is no room to accomodate a population of 500 mature individuals in one large reserve. Another problem is human activity in quite a number of districts. As it has a significant effect on litter size and survival rates of young tigers, researchers proposed to add two new protected zones in the Primorsky Krai. If the proposal will be accepted, Amur tigers have a future. 

The last problem that needs to be addressed is genetic depletion. As a result of the destruction, the gene pool was largely destroyed. One result is that the amount of individual variation is more limited than in other tiger subspecies. Furthermore, Amur tigers are smaller than a century ago. The only way to address some of the problems is to use the genes of captive tigers. It could result in more variety.       

i - Unsung heroes

The Russians saved an iconic species from extinction. A remarkable effort, given the conditions in the Russian Far East in the period 1860-2015. The recovery of the Amur tiger is the ultimate result of the efforts of those involved in conservation in some way or another. There are many unsung heroes. Here's a bit more on some of them.

1 - Russian zapovedniks. An extensive and very interesting overview: 

http://www.wildnet.ru/images/phocagallery/2016/56/7/V.Stepanickiy%20100%20Years%20of%20Russian%20ZAPOVEDNIKS%20Past,%20Present%20and%20Future.pdf

2 - V.K. Arseniev. He wrote 'Dersu the Trapper', first published in 1941. I have the new English translation published in 1996. This is from the new English translation:

" ... Vladimir Klavdievich Arseniev (1872-1930) undertook twelve major scientific expeditions between 1902 and 1930 in the Siberian Far East, and authored some sixty works on the geography and ethnography of the region. Among these, 'Dersu the Trapper' has earned a priviliged place in Russian literature. In this Russian counterpart of 'The Journals of Lewis and Clark' and the novels of James Fenimore Cooper, Arseniev combines the precise observations of a naturalist with an exciting narrative of real-life adventure.

Arseniev describes three explorations in the Ussurian taiga along the Sea of Japan above Vladivostok, beginning with his first encounter of the solitary aboriginal hunter named Dersu, a member of the Gold tribe, who thereafter becomes his guide. Each expedition is beset with hardship and danger: through blizzard and flood and assorted deprivations, these two men forge an exceptional friendship in their Mutual respect for the immense grandeur of the wilderness ... " ('Dersu the Trapper', 1996).

Here's a photograph of Vladimir Klavdievich Arseniev:

*This image is copyright of its original author

Here's one of Dersu Uzala, taken by Arseniev:

*This image is copyright of its original author

 

And here a photograph showing both: 

*This image is copyright of its original author

 

3 - Lev Kaplanov. In 1941, Lev Georgiyevich Kaplanov, a very active naturalist and zoologist, became director of what is now the Lazovsky Zapovednik. A year and half later, in May 1943, he was killed: https://books.google.nl/books?id=nYU-8Qti3NcC&pg=PA95&lpg=PA95&dq=Lev+Kaplanov&source=bl&ots=euFcY-7Onb&sig=9SdqWGlWiNFpfLJBPYLaPZLACx8&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi0lOexh7PfAhUGb1AKHZ3ICP8Q6AEwAXoECAgQAQ#v=onepage&q=Lev%20Kaplanov&f=false

Here's a link to the English translation (A.A. Shevlakov, 2005) of 'Tiger-Deer-Moose' (first published in 1948): 

https://books.google.nl/books?id=nYU-8Qti3NcC&pg=PA95&lpg=PA95&dq=Lev+Kaplanov&source=bl&ots=euFcY-7Onb&sig=9SdqWGlWiNFpfLJBPYLaPZLACx8&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi0lOexh7PfAhUGb1AKHZ3ICP8Q6AEwAXoECAgQAQ#v=onepage&q=Lev%20Kaplanov&f=false

4 - D. Pikunov. The series on Dmitry Pikunov should tell you something about his status. Pikunov stood out in more than one way, but he was a big cat authority foremost. His proposal on two new protected zones, discussed in this post, wasn't the only one. Here are a few ideas on tiger corridors. It was published in 1996: 

http://www.plexusowls.com/PDFs/tiger_corridors.pdf

5 - D. Miquelle and L. Kerley have been in the Russian Far East for a long time. They know about Amur tigers. Here's two nice photographs:

*This image is copyright of its original author

*This image is copyright of its original author

j - Research in the Russian Far East - A summary

I found this overview on the site of the Amur Tiger Programme. It's well written and very interesting: 

*This image is copyright of its original author

*This image is copyright of its original author

*This image is copyright of its original author

*This image is copyright of its original author

k - China 

I'll do one more on Pikunov to finish the series. In the last part (part IV), the new park in the northeastern part of China will be discussed. Reply