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ON THE EDGE OF EXTINCTION - A - THE TIGER (Panthera tigris)
ON THE EDGE OF EXTINCTION - A - THE TIGER (Panthera tigris)
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ON THE EDGE OF EXTINCTION - A - THE TIGER (Panthera tigris)
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AMUR TIGER RESEARCH - THE CLAYTON S. MILLER THESIS (2012) - I
A - INTRODUCTION (based on 'Acknowledgements' and the conclusion) The next posts are about the thesis attached to post 246 (Guate). I read it more than once and decided to scan a few pages. The thesis is interesting in more than one way and needs to be discussed, I think. One reason the thesis is interesting, is it expresses the opinion of those involved in Amur tiger research and conservation. The list of researchers who assisted Miller is long and has well-known names only. Miller wrote the thesis on his own, but the others are there all the time. The thesis, I think, not only is a good piece of work on a new method to conserve Amur tigers, but it also, maybe even foremost, is an appeal to those in the decision-making departments in Russia. Those able to implement measures and change situations, that is. Yes, I was thinking of Putin, but remember this is my opinion only. I'll go through the thesis from the top down, selecting pieces of information I consider to be interesting here and there. All scans are from the thesis. All comments are mine. B - TITLE PAGE  *This image is copyright of its original author C - STUDY AREA  *This image is copyright of its original author - The study area was the Sichote-Alin Biosphere Zapovednik (SABZ), which was founded in 1935 and is maintained as an International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Class I protected area close to the village of Terney, Primorski Krai (province) in de Russian Far East (RFE). - The SABZ is around 4000 square km. It is closed to the public and access is strictly limited to Zapovednik staff and visiting scientists. Inside the Reserve, hunting is illegal and poaching is relatively low. - The SABZ is dominated by the Sichote-Alin Mountain Range, which runs parallel with the Sea of Japan. Most peaks are below 1200 m., with some up to 1600 m. - The SABZ occurs in the Far Eastern temperate climatic zone and is characterized by strong seasonality with dry, cold winters, strong winds and moderate snowfall (mean January temperature -14C in Terney) and warm, humid summers (mean July temperature 15C in Terney). - Annual precipitation is 788 mm. Dominant vegetation communities within the SABZ include oak forests along the coast and mixed conifer-decidious forests at higher elevations including Korean pine, larch, birch and mixed spruce forests. - The primary tiger prey species in the SABZ include red deer (Cervus elaphus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), sika deer (Cervus nippon) and roe deer (Capreolus pygargus). Amur tigers also opportunististically on moose (Alces alces), musk deer (Mochus moschiferus), ghoral (Nemorhaedus caudatus), brown bear (Ursus arctos), Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus), wolf, red fox (Vulpes vulpes), raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides), badger (Meles leucurus) and domestic dog (Canis familiaris).
AMUR TIGER RESEARCH - THE CLAYTON S. MILLER THESIS - II
D - THE GLOBAL TIGER RECOVERY PROGRAM 1 - In an unprecedented action to save a rapidly diminishing wildelife species, government leaders from all 13 tiger range countries gathered in St. Petersburg to discuss efforts to save tigers from extinction in November 2010. 2 - At the end of the 3-day meeting, all 13 leaders endorsed the Global Tiger Recovery Program, with a primary goal of doubling the number of tigers by 2022. 3 - All wild tigers are threatened by poaching. Apart from that, the primary threat in north-east Asia is declining prey populations. The primary threat in south-east Asia, where tigers often have plenty to eat, is too little room for dispersal due to habitat loss and fragmentation. E - SOME THINGS TO REMEMBER REGARDING THE RUSSIAN FAR EAST 1 - Tiger range in the Russian Far East consists of 156.000 square km. of contiguous forests with relatively low human densities. 2 - There are over 60.000 registered hunters in the Russian Far East who rely on multiple use lands. 3 - Wildlife management organizations are responsible for managing hunting, controlling poaching and conducting surveys of game species on leased hunting territories which compass about 85% of Amur tiger habitat. 4 - Annual ungulate surveys from 1998 to 2009 have documented a steady decline in ungulate prey populations throughout Amur tiger habitat. Less than 15% of the remaining 156.000 square km. of tiger habitat is protected and hunting or large ungulate species - the same species which tigers depend on - is both legal and a traditional source of protein for local villagers in the remaining 85%. In a classic example of conflict between hunters and carnivores, Russian hunters claim that tigers are reducing the amount of prey, yet conservationists maintain over-hunting and poaching is the cause of the reduced prey base. Because Amur tigers require large forested areas with sufficient ungulate prey and low human densities to survive en reproduce, tigers and people must find a way to co-exist in the multiple-use forests. 5 - Different studies have shown that Amur tigers living in protected areas kill more large ungulates than tigers living in unprotected areas. Same for this study. F - THE AIM OF THIS STUDY Within the multitude of conservation actions, sufficiently high ungulate densities are the foundation on what any recovering tiger population depends. Poaching and legal substence hunting have led to the forest syndrome throughout much of Asia where intact forests are depopulated of large ungulate prey - the main prey required for persistence of tiger populations. Researchers recently reviewed the literature to define the preferred prey and preferred weight ranges of tigers. This information will help land managers develop strategies that befenit these key prey species. ` ... What remains to be clearly defined are the prey requirements and kill rates of tigers .. ` (pp. 1). Many studies have addressed this aspect of tiger ecology, but none have harnessed the recent technological advances in our field to rigorously estimate kill rates across all seasons. This thesis is the first project to use GPS technology to expand existing scientific knowledge of year-round tiger-prey dynamics in the RFE, to improve kill-rate estimation methods and contribute, in this way, practically to sustainable wildlife management. The thesis is divided into two main chapters concerning Amur tiger kill rates and prey requirements. In Chapter 2, Miller developes methods for estimating kill and consumption rates from GPS data to estimate annual kill rates on large ungulates. The results are compared to those in other studies based on GPS data. He also developes a method to determine the threshold consumption rate for survival and reproduction. In Chapter 3, Miller developes an energetic model to estimate the prey requirements for tigers to survive and to reproduce.
AMUR TIGER RESEARCH - THE CLAYTON S. MILLER THESIS - III
G - GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) " ... From the tiger's perspective, the goal of allocating prey to tigers based on annual kill rates through management is to ensure that tigers maintain a consumption rate sufficient to survive and reproduce. While kill rate is an important ecological parameter, ultimately it is the consumption rate that matters most for tiger conservation. Recent advances in GPS collars gave enabled carnivore researchers to gather detailed location data that can be used to estimate kill rates ... " (pp. 9). Miller and all others involved in his thesis, for the first time, develop " ... methods for estimating Amur tiger kill rates and consumption rates from GPS data to estimate annual kill rates on large ungulates in the Russian Far East ... " (pp. 10). To estimate tiger kill and consumtion rates with GPS data, Miller and those helping out " ... combined GPS data collection with field investigation of potential kill sites to estimate tiger kill rates as the number of days between kills and in terms of consumption rates. To estimate the number of kills, we processed GPS location data into clusters and ground-searched most of the largest clusters as putative kill sites ... " (pp. 12). Miller assumed that " ... tigers not disturbed by humans rarely leave edible portions of a carcass. As human disturbance in the backcountry of the SABZ is limited, we assumed tigers consumed 79% of each prey item ... " (pp. 16). H - THE COLLARED TIGERS From 2009 to 2010, two adult females, two adult males and one sub-adult female were collared. These five tigers were each monitored from 0 to 481 days, with a combined total of 697 days for all tigers. A bit meagre, one would think. The reason was " ... human-tiger conflicts and technology failures limited data collection ... " (pp. 16). Below is an overview of what happened. - The first collar malfunctioned soon after tigress Pt94 was released. This tigress was never seen again. - Adult male tiger Pt90 was captured in the fall of 2009, but data from his collar could not be downloaded " ... until the collar was retrieved after this tiger was killed during a human-tiger conflict in January 2010. Post-mortem analysis showed that Pt90 was infected with canine distemper virus when he was killed ... " (pp. 16-17). - Pt97 was a sub-adult female captured in the fall of 2009. She was monitored for five weeks only before she died from unknown causes in the SABZ. - Pt99 was a tigress captured in a human-tiger conflict situation in February 2010 (she was shot by a hunter, but survived). She was translocated into a remote forested area with healthy prey populations. - Pt100 was a young adult male captured in the fall of 2010. His collar malfunctioned 99 days after capture. So the collars malfunctioned in two tigers (Pt94 and Pt100), whereas pt99 was shot and relocated and adult male tiger Pt90 died as a result of a conflict that most probably was a result of the disease he had contracted. Sub-adult tigress Pt97 died of unknown causes. The only tiger not shot, diseased or injured was tigress Pt94. One can only conclude that Amur tigers face tough conditions. Tigress Pt99, at 130 kg., is the heaviest weighed in the last two decades. The adult male was about average in weight, whereas the young adult male was quite heavy for his age.  *This image is copyright of its original author
193kg for the 4 year old male is pretty impressive, considering that he barely made it to adult-hood. a prime animal at 5-6 he could've easily reached 210kg+
 (11-25-2014, 09:27 PM)'peter' Wrote: AMUR TIGER RESEARCH - THE CLAYTON S. MILLER THESIS - III Or one could say that Amur's are not as genetically healthy as they once were, or stress due to capture could be a cause, or the collars were a failed experiment.(on this occasion) It also shows that hunters are no less likely to kill a collared tiger as opposed to one with out. I think the chances of running into an Amur to capture and collar are so slim on their own, that its hard enough to find a Tiger, let a lone a healthy prime adult. Its not like collaring Gabbar, who was already heavily viewed since his sub adulthood. They already knew he was a healthy and prime specimen, so the odds of him surviving after the collaring are probably higher. Just my two cents on the matter.  (11-21-2014, 12:56 PM)'peter' Wrote: I've 4 questions:1. The weights on the table are probably average figures of the species, not the exact weight of the animals, I guess. However, some average figures don't match with those reported by the STP, so probably are the weight of the real animals. 2. Yes, she was the tigress attacked by the hunter. She is still alive, as far I remember. 3. In fact, she is the second heaviest Amur tigress on record. The heaviest one is "Princess", captured in May of 2011 and weighed 136 kg (T.A.T. Programme, 2011). The tigress "Maria Ivanovna" (Pt-04) weighed up to 129 kg in her first capture, she is the third heaviest. 4. Ok, no problem, but remember that he also said to me that they were going to publish the Amur tiger Monograph in English, but at this day, there is not a single clue if they, in fact, are going to translate it.
Thanks, Guate. The answer to the last question is important. I haven't heard a lot of the WCS Siberian Tiger Project lately. I didn't read any documents. The Russian team, on the other hand, seems to be much more active. Has there been a budget cut, is the inactivity (partly) a result of the article on the Aldrich-snare or is there something else?
Regarding the first question. I read the thesis I'm discussing at the moment more than once and, therefore, know the average weights of the different species mentioned were based on records published in recent Russian documents (Bromlej and Kucherenko 1983, and Danilkin, 1999). The averages for Amur tigers were based on the overview of Slaght et al. (2005). One more thing. The tigers monitored were captured with modified Aldrich foot-snares. I don't think Miller, regarding 'modified', referred to the incidents described in an article of a Russian team member, as he referred to a document of Goodrich published in 2001 (see pp. 12).
AMUR TIGER RESEARCH - THE CLAYTON S. MILLER THESIS - IV
I - RESULTS 1 - Average inter-kill interval and kills per year " ... We evaluated the relationship between the inter-kill interval and weight of observed kills ... using all data from Pt100 and two sets of data from Pt99, one before the poaching attempt and one after a two-month recovery period. The average inter-kill interval between observed small prey kills (7,25 days) was shorter than the inter-kill interval between of between large prey kill sites (9,25 days), but the relationship was not strong ... " (pp. 19). " ... Monitored tigers made an average of 0,11 kills per day ..., or one kill every 9,1 days. Extrapolating our results to an annual rate for an individual tiger, these observed kill rates would result in an average of 40,1 kills per year. Our logistic regression model predicted slightly higher kill rates than observed in the field (one kill every 8,29 days or 44 kills per year) ... " (pp. 20). This corresponds to 7,5 kg. per day for an adult tiger. A bit lower than previously reported results, that is. One reason was these were a result of extrapolation of what was observed in winter, when Amur tigers could be followed in the snow. Styudying Amur tigers in summer was impossible. Another reason could have been a declining prey base and smaller animals. The third reason could have been a change of diet in summer. Miller and the ones involved in his research thought Amur tigers could be preying on smaller animals in summer, thus increasing their kill rates in that season. The last reason could have been less large ungulates for the simple reason they are much less abundant than a decade ago, especially in unprotected areas (pp. 24). Here's how the findings compared:  *This image is copyright of its original author  *This image is copyright of its original author 2 - Energy requirements a - Goals and assumptions " ... The northern limit of tiger distribution is hypothesized to be constrained by densities of prey species. Given that Amur tigers exist at the lowest densities of ungulates for any known tiger subspecies, the challenge of understanding prey requirements and reproduction is particularly acute for this northern subspecies. As an impoverished prey base will support only occasional reproduction, determining the threshold consumption rate for reproduction is an important conservation question ... " (pp. 42). " ... The conservation question for Amur tigers is then to manage ungulate harvest and poaching to achieve a necessary minimum prey density. Quantifying the energetic requirements of tigers allows scientists and managers to estimate nutritional carrying capacity ... " (pp. 43). " ... The primary energetic activities of adult tigers are resting, traveling, eating, hunting and the periodic energetic costs associated with reproduction and thermoregulation. Time spent in different activities multipliede by the energetic costs of each activity results in an estimate of daily energy requirements. Reproductive female tigers experience higher energetic costs than males because of the additional costs of gestation, lactation and then securing sufficient prey biomass for 1-4 growing young ... " (pp. 43). " ... We have two broad goals, first to estimate tiger energetic requirements and then determine the consequences of these energetic requirements in terms of predicted prey requirements in single and multi-prey communities ... " (pp. 44). Then formulas were constructed to describe and quantify every activity. Miller used a tiger's body weight to estimate the basal metabolic rate. It was assumed thermoregulation increased energetic costs by 15%. It was also assumed reproduction is the most energetically expensive activity. Furthermore, it was assumed that for tigers, like in cougars (for lack of better), meat and organs of prey species resulted in 1,890 kcal/kg. for all prey species (pp. 54). Finally, it was assumed that about 15% of each kill was lost. b - Results After a lot of computations, it was concluded an average tiger, in an average day, spends 7.5 hours at kill sites, 7.4 hours traveling, 9.1 hours resting and 1.44 minutes in hunting and attacking prey (pp. 56). Male Amur tigers spent 6.5 hours traveling per day and moved 7.6 km. a day in summer and 6.5 km. in winter. Adult non-reproducing Amur tigresses spent 7.9 hours traveling per day and averaged 6.6 km. per day in summer and 4.5 km. in winter (pp. 57-58). For all sexes and seasons " ... energetic requirements were most sensitive to variation in tiger weights (41% of the variation), followed by time spent eating (22%), time spent traveling (18%) and time spent resting (11%). The last three parameters (travel speed, distance traveled per day and time spent hunting) only accounted for 8% of the total variation in total energetic requirements ... " (pp. 61-62). In order to meet the energetic requirements, a male tiger needs to consume a minimum of 4.6 kg. of meat per day in summer and 5.3 kg. in winter (average 4.9 kg. per day year-round). For an adult non-reproducing tigress, the numbers are 3.4 kg. per day in summer and 3.8 kg. per day in winter (3.6 kg. per day year-round). From pregnancy to succesful dispersal, a tigress with an average litter needs to obtain an average of 7.3 kg. per day and a female successfully raising 4 cubs to dispersal needs to average 11.1 kg. per day (pp. 60). c - The discrepancy between predicted minimum requirements and actual observations " ... The consistent discrepancies between empirical observations and energetic modeling raise a series of questions. For example, are the models failing to accuratelu estimate energy demands or are carnivores killing more than they need to survive ... "? (pp. 63). Miller then offered some possible answers: - carnivores strive to always have more food than might cause starvation; - carnivores could face energetic costs researchers are unable to incorperate in their models, like injury, and - carnivores traveling in deep snow could face increased energetic demands (pp. 64-65). d - Conclusion - Miller and those involved in his research concluded their model was accurate enough regarding conservational purposes to be used everywhere. It was also tested in the Sunderbans. 3 - A few more tables  *This image is copyright of its original author  *This image is copyright of its original author  *This image is copyright of its original author  *This image is copyright of its original author
AMUR TIGER RESEARCH - THE CLAYTON S. MILLER THESIS - V - CONCLUSIONS
1 - Amur tigers have 156.000 square km. of contiguous forests with low human density at their disposal. This is without North-Korea and north-east China. Of all remaining subspecies, Amur tigers, in this respect, have the best future. 2 - The problem is only about 15% of it is protected. Amur tigers have to share 85% of their territory with 60.000 hunters in Russia alone (...). As both more or less hunt the same prey animals, conflict is close. Many Amur tigers die directly (poaching) or indirectly (prey depletion, traffic and canine distemper) as a result of conflicts with humans. Take this study. Of the 5 tigers collared and monitored, 2 were killed by humans. The third was out of action for two months as a result of a poaching attempt. This means 60% of the collared tigers suffered as a result of conflict. Way too high. Also remember quite many Amur tigers are 'problem tigers'. These tigers often are well below the average weight and many of them, often as a result of an injury they picked up in a conflict, end up dead sooner or later. I don't know how many 'problem tigers' there are, but the list I saw some years ago was a long one. 3 - If the aim of doubling the number of tigers in 2022 is to be reached, more protection is needed. The question is how much more. In order to answer this question, Miller developed a model enabling researchers to quantify the energetic needs of Amur tigers. He concluded it is good enough to be used by those involved in advice and decisions regarding (the protection of) tigers anywhere in Asia. 4 - The risk with a model based on the minimum requirements of tigers severely affected by conflict and prey depletion is underestimation of the real energetic needs. One could, however, make a case for a model based on healthy tigers, not one adapted to limitations. These limitations are real and expressed in different ways. Apart from the number of tigers killed during conflicts and the large number of 'problem tigers', there is the question of weight. Wild Amur tigers, although often longer and taller than Indian tigers, are well below the Indian average. There also is little variation. Captive Amur tigers are heavier than most of their wild relatives. at least in Europe and in the US. In this respect, they are very different from other subspecies. It is known Amur tigers face tough conditions, severe competition and empty forests. For this reason, they need large territories. We also know about 15% of their energetic need is used for thermoregulation. This means many wild Amur tigers often are unable to get to their potential. In spite of that, Amur tigers are large and robust animals with large skulls. There's no question they are the largest subspecies. Based on everything I have, one would expect 0.9-1.3 kg. per cm. in head and body length for a healthy wild adult male. Translated into numbers, I would get to 160-265 kg. for males and an average between 195-220 kg. Like in all other subspecies, we also expect to see outsized specimens about 30-40% heavier every now and then. It is, however, a fact that the heaviest of those actually weighed in the last two decades were 200, 204, 207, 212 and possibly 215 kg. (referring to a photograph of L. Kerley collaring a 474-pound male), whereas the average is close to 190 kg. One can't say the lower average probably is a result of genes when it is known Amur tigers, even without the giants many referred to in the recent past, were 10-15% heavier a century ago (Slaght et al, 2005). A lower average weight (combined with the other factors mentioned above) could be an expression of a structural problem, especially when it is known that 41% of the energetic need of Amur tigers is strongly related to weight. Should a model be based on unnatural conditions (those of today), or should a model start from a different track? Surviving on a minimum wage or moving to promotion, that is the question. I think Miller could have added a bit more on this issue, but I readily admit it would be less than practical and time-consuming. Size is something for posters. But researchers could and should deliver a bit more in this department, I think. 5 - Apart from the points discussed in -4-, Miller's thesis is well written, to the point and, above all, relevant. As there can be no doubt he was supported by people 'in the know', the thesis also can be seen as an appeal. What they're really saying is Amur tigers need more protected reserves and more large ungulates. And they need it fast if the goal of twice as many tigers in 2022 is to be reached. From what I read on the site of the Russian Amur Tiger Team, the Russians are prepared to act. There will be more reserves and they also seem prepared to address the problems regarding hunters and legislation. In the end, it's just another battle between humans and animals. I'm optimistic about the outcome. There is plenty of room, many Russians seem willing to accept tigers as neighbours, there is a lot of knowledge and the political representatives have the will to act. If there's one country able to sustain a population of, say, 1000-1500 wild tigers, it's Russia. If the Chinese are prepared to help out, Amur tigers could recover. It would be quite an achievement.
TIGERS AND BEARS IN RUSSIA - IX
Tigers and brown bears make for a good topic. The Russian Far East is the only place where both meet and interact. It isn't Jurassic Park, but I wouldn't say they indulge in conversations either. At times, these giants clash. The next posts will be about facts, tables and opinions of people 'in the know', most of these hunters and researchers. Comments will be offered at times, but it is about authentic and first-hand information foremost. 01 - A table based on information collected by V. Abramov (1962). First posted by Warsaw on AVA:  *This image is copyright of its original author 02 - A two or three-year old Amur tiger strangled by a brown bear in the Schuchi-Pokto Reserve close to Chabarowsk in the late fall of 1956. The exact age isn't known. In the text, Mazak, who published the photograph in his book (1983, pp. 120-121), wrote the tiger was about 3 years of age, but the liner notes below the photograph say it was a two-year old animal (...). My guess is the tiger was closer to two years of age. The reason is young Amur tigers disperse when they are about 18 months of age. The tiger died defending a wild boar his mother had left him. The photograph is from the archive of V.K. Abramov, but the incident was first mentioned by Krivopusk (1957). Judging from the photograph, the young tiger could have been a male. He also was eaten by the bear. Mazak wrote incidents like this one also happened in the 1959-1960 winter and in the fall of 1960 in Sichote-Alin. Some of the incidents Mazak mentioned were described in detail in Heptner and Sludskij's great book 'Mammals of the Sowjet-Union'. Below is a part I translated regarding this incident: " ... Young tigers perish more often than adults. They are killed by male tigers, brown bears and other predators. In 1956, there was a crop failure in Birobidshan. As a result, wild boars struggled. In the late fall, many brown bears were unable to hibernate as a result of a shortage of food, They turned into hungry wanderers roaming the taiga ('Schatuns'). One of these attacked a three-year old tiger in the taiga near Chingan in the Schuchi-Pokto Reserve. Judging from the traces in the snow, the following happened: A tigress feeding the relatively large young tiger had attacked a sounder of wild pigs and killed one. She left the wild pig for the young tiger and moved on. When she had left, a 'Schatun' found the wild boar and the tiger. Judging from the trampled soil, the pieces of hair and the many red-coloured stains in the snow, there was a fight which was won by the bear. He ate as much as he could and covered his hard-won wild boar when he left. He returned more than once. After he had finished the wild boar, he started on the tiger. During his meal, he was disturbed by humans (Krivopusk, 1957). We already discribed another incident in which such a bear (a 'Schatun') fought and killed an adult tigress in Sichote-Alin. In 1960, a young tiger was killed in a fight with a bear in the Sichote-Alin Reserve (V. Abramov, 1962) ... " (pp. 156-157). On page 167, Heptner and Sludskij published a drawing of the photograph below. It's a very good one from N.N. Kondakov, who used the photograph below. The liner notes below the drawing say the tiger was three years of age. As their book was published before Mazak's book (1980 vs. 1983), I propose to go with them for now. In spite of that, I think the tiger was closer to two years of age. The reason is Amur tigers disperse at about 18 months of age (see below). Young females often settle close to or even in the territory of their mother, but young males usually walk long distances when they disperse. Regarding the young tiger killed in the Sichote-Alin Reserve in 1960 (I'm not referring to the tiger below). This incident is mentioned in many books. I'm not sure, but it could be Sysoev (see the previous posts on tigers and bears in Russia in this thread) was the one who actually saw the fight. Sysoev was the one who reported on the incident in a Russian newspaper in 1960. His story ('Amba'), published in 1964, according to poster Alexious3 (AVA), could have been based on this incident. Alexious also thought the male tiger killed by a male brown bear in 'Amba' wasn't a young animal, as I suggested, but just a male. This opinion, of course, contradicts the facts, as the tiger killed in 1960 was a young male. If Sysoev used the fight he might have witnessed in 1960, the tiger was a young male. The story on the young tiger below, as you noticed, is long and different from the young male killed in 1960 in the Sichote-Alin Reserve. You now know the details of the young male killed in 1956:  *This image is copyright of its original author 03 - Here's some information about the age young Amur tigers disperse. The male below, who dispersed at just over 24 months, was exceptional. Most young Amur tigers disperse at 18-20 months: [/i]  *This image is copyright of its original author 04 - A non-hibernating brown bear or 'Schatun'. This animal, not small by any means (watch the man in the far left), starved to death in the Russian winter. On his way to starvation, the bear must have been desperate. Non-hibernating brown bears are the ones who attack tigers at times. Most fights between brown bears and tigers happen in winter. This means 'Schatuns' were involved. The photograph was first posted by Warsaw on AVA:  *This image is copyright of its original author
TIGERS AND BEARS IN RUSSIA - X - CAUSES OF DEATH
01 - All factors combined - Amur tigers killed by humans, other tigers, wild boars and bears 1985-1996. Humans accounted for most dead tigers (nearly 90%), but in these 12 years 11 tigers were killed by other tigers and 7 were killed by bears. Starvation accounted for 6 more and wild boars added four more. Quite many tigers died of unknown causes:  *This image is copyright of its original author 02 - Humans - skull of a male Amur tiger poached. Judging from the teeth, the skull probably was that of a young adult male tiger. I wouldn't know about relatives (upper canine length divided by upper skull length), but there's no question male Amur tigers have the longest upper canines in absolutes. Based on what I saw in the skulls I measured, they also have the most robust (width of the canines near the insertion in the jaw):  *This image is copyright of its original author 03 - Humans - large tigress hit by a car I saw a video of the tigress just after the accident had happened. She was lying near the road. Although she was treated, she didn't survive the injuries to her spine. The accident happened in the period canine distemper was creating havoc. It could be this tigress too demonstrated strange behaviour (some young male tigers were filmed walking on a road in broad daylight), but I'm not sure if canine distemper was the cause:  *This image is copyright of its original author 04 - Unknown - this tiger was found dead. I've posted a number of photographs of Amur tigers found dead in recent years. The cause of death was unknown in most cases. I don't think it was canine distemper in this case, as most tigers affected by this disease were thin as a rail when they perished or had to be shot:  *This image is copyright of its original author 05 - Bears - This is an account of an incident that happened in the days of the Sowjet-Union. I found this book some years ago on a market. When the seller saw I was interested, he said he would sell it for a cup of coffee. I agreed. The first scan is of the cover. The second has a story about a fight between a bear and a tiger. A hunter from Vladivostok saw crows circling in the forest. He followed them and found a place where a tiger and a bear had fought in the snow. They found the dead bear, but not the tiger. He had fled when they arrived. As the fight happened in winter, I assumed a 'Schatun' had been involved. Black bears, as far as I know, always hibernate. Some brown bears, as a result of a lack of fat, do not. They wander through the taiga in search of food. Many are desperate animals, willing to engage even a tiger. At times they win, but this one did not:  *This image is copyright of its original author  *This image is copyright of its original author 06 - Bears - a mail of Linda Kerley on bears and tigers in Russia. The scan isn't great (I lost parts of sentences), but I posted it anyhow because she knows about bears and tigers. Kerley replied to a question of an AVA-poster (I thought it was Jungle Sprout). She said some tigers specialize on bears. When hibernation starts, these specialists suffer. Kerley also wrote some bears follow tigresses with cubs in winter ('Schatuns'). These non-hibernating bears displace, fight, kill and eat tigers in winter. Most of these, so it seems, tigresses with cubs or immatures. Tigers kill bears of all sizes up to the largest and healthiest female brown bears. She was another one who said tigresses also hunt and eat bears. The last sentence says it all: in tigers and bears, anything can happen:  *This image is copyright of its original author 07 - Bears - two incidents between tigers and bears in 2008. In one case, a tigress with cubs was harrassed by a bear. They fought and both were wounded. The bear didn't get it his way. A second fight happened between a male tiger and a black bear (probably a male, as female Himalayan black bears only average about 80 kg., whereas male tigers average 190 kg.). Traces in the snow would have been a good headline:  *This image is copyright of its original author
TIGERS AND BEARS IN RUSSIA - XI - OPINIONS OF AUTHORITIES - KRECHMAR
1 - INTRODUCTION Tigers and bears is special material. Every time there is a debate on a forum about both animals, it seems like a soccer game. The outcome always is unpredictable, but those involved give it what they have. Most debates, although they start with a few authentic observations, quickly get out of hand. Conclusions are only very seldom reached. One reason, apart from preference, is observations vary considerably. In quite many respects, they even contradict each other. There are different ways to overcome the problem discussed. One is to agree to focus on reliable observations only. Two is to take the problem apart. This means we need to distinguish between different factors. Three is to get to conclusions regarding different aspects. Four is to accept that most of what we want to know can't be known. The reason is even experienced researchers often think that anything is possible in tigers and bears. I propose to start with reliable observations. It is remarkable that many Russian hunters and biologists loaded with field experience never saw a tiger or a brown bear. Others saw both, but no interactions. Some hunters, naturalists or biologists did. A few, like Sysoev, Sludskij and Krechmar, saw tigers and bears interact more than once. They were very lucky. 2 - KRECHMAR Krechmar was discussed more than once in different bear and tiger threads on AVA. I know he is a biologist who also hunts. He has good contacts with both locals and researchers and is more or less independant. Although he published a book in 2006, I never found anything on the internet. Maybe it wasn't translated. What I know, is from the internet. And forums. This means I can't say if I'm right or wrong. Everything I read could have been close to hearsay. I just don't know. Anyhow. This post has a number of quotes that were first posted by others (like Grahh, Warsaw and Alexious3) on AVA. Many quotes are from a blog Krechmar apparently had. Some quotes seem to contradict each other, but in the end they, I think, don't. 3 - QUOTES a - The point system 050-100 kg. - tiger wins 100-150 kg. - about 50-50 150-200 kg. - tiger wins 200-300 kg. - bear wins The table was based on his own experience, interviews with locals and hunters and, last but not least, Sludskij's book 'Lord of the Jungle'. Before he wrote his book, Sludskij, like Krechmar, read everything available, talked to authorities and interviewed locals and hunters. I think there really was a system, but not one ever published about it. Posters do. But biologists, of course, also talk. The reason male bears top the list of favourites in animals of 200 kg. and over is a weight advantage, endurance and extra-thick muscles in the neck. The powerful muscles would prevent a quick kill of male tigers. In tooth and claw, there wouldn't be a lot of difference, many think (one of these Pikunov). b - Subspecies In Primorye, there is only Ursus arctos lasiotus, but it is likely Amur tigers will meet north-east Siberian brown bears at some stage, as they are more widely distributed than a few decades ago. These bears, although some very large animals have been found, are a bit smaller than Ursus arctos lasiotus.  *This image is copyright of its original author Ursus arctos lasiotus, also known as the 'black grizzly' or 'horse bear', is a large subspecies, with males averaging between 580-595 pounds and females 320-330 pounds. Females of 700 pounds and over have been found in north-east China and my guess is some males will easily exceed 800 pounds in summer. Remember it isn't clear if the the weights mentioned (Kucherenko and one other study) were year-round or seasonal averages. Kucherenko wrote males average 196 cm. in head and body length, but it isn't known in what way the animals were measured. My take, for now, is they were measured 'over contours' as this is the method most often used in bears. The difference between this method and a straight line measurement in Yellowstone brown bears (see the table below) was no less than 32 cm., meaning it is likely males of the lasiotus type average 164 cm. in a straight line. The largest in Kucherenko's table was 252 cm., meaning this animal was as long as the longest male Amur tiger in a straight line or slightly longer. If we compare an average male brown bear of the lasiotus type with an average male Amur tiger, the result is 195-164 cm. in head and body length and 190-270 kg. in weight. Clear advantage male brown bears.  *This image is copyright of its original author c - Male brown bears, male Amur tigers and food Krechmar said: " ... It (the brown bear) comes out down to it as the extortionist. It is able to find sufficient food ... of the striped predator in order to ensure itself of it's nourishment (livelyhood). But if near the output still is the legal owner, then last prefer to leave, for the sake of not communicating with the clumsy giant ... " (a quote from a book Krechmar apparently wrote in 2006, pp. 32). One point for brown bears then? Yes and no: " ... Almost all the witnesses of such major tigers with bears - severely got into - is dispersal. That is, no domination of large bears over large areas, there is no! Well, if considered as dominance, victory in physical experienced - it is not. And if considered as dominance over resources - the tiger, for example, does not contest the bear its production - where donkeychildren in the spring and tiger brush, tiger leave: it is easier to catch a new (than to) connect to bear ... " (a quote without a source, but I assume it was either from his book or his blog). Another quote on large male Himalayan black bears and tigresses: " ... Large male Himalayan bear calmly can fight off the tiger come from its legitimate production ... " (unknown source). Large male Himalayan black bears can appropiate kills from tigresses. d - Conclusions So what to make of these quotes? Although male brown bears are both heavier and more robust, Krechmar thinks there isn't much to choose between male tigers and male brown bears. In a fysical fight, not one dominates the other. Most fights end in dispersal. In spite of that, male bears apparently are able to displace male tigers at times. Tigers prefers to hunt again than to fight a large and dangerous opponent. The most likely reason, I think, is tigers could get injured. This would affect their ability as a hunter, whereas a bear, as a non-hunter, wouldn't be bothered by injuries. His job is extortion. Some male tigers, at some stage, could decide to defend their kill. Those who witnessed these fights agree most end in dispersal. In spite of that, some animals would be prepared to go all the way. The classified results I have show that those who perish are either inexperienced young males (tigers), overconfident old boys (bears) or desperate animals (both). The lack of knock-out's clearly confirms the Russians, regarding their points system, are right: it is about points and not knock-out's. In spite of that, I would disagree with their conclusion (brown bears win on points). I mean, if authorities agree there isn't a lot to choose between a 190 kg. male Amur tiger and a 270 kg. male brown bear, if they agree most fights end in dispersal and if they agree (confirmed by recent research) that male tigers only very seldom are displaced, I would get to a clear win of an animal able to overcome a difference of 80 kg. (or about half its own weight). But maybe the Russians were referring to the result (displacement or no displacement) only. There are, of course, very large brown bears. I do not doubt these 'equalizers' would get it their way, but animals of that quality are few and far between. Too few to get to general conclusions. In the great majority of interactions, animals of more or less average size would be involved. The outcome of every bout would be close to unpredictable and the animals also know. This conclusion is confirmed by what biologists and others saw: most fights end in dispersal. But dispersal is a bit different from mutual avoidance in that it happens after a fight.  *This image is copyright of its original author
Interesting read for you guys
Didi vs. Goliath, a Story of Tiger Ecology, Conservation and Human Conflict I'm going to tell you the most incredible story I've heard since arriving in Indonesia. To do that I first need to tell you the story of Mr. Didik Raharyono (Didi). Didi is one of those rare finds whose passion is irrefutable and whose knowledge seems endless. He's been searching for the Javan tiger for nearly 15 years, but has yet to see one. In fact the Indonesian government declared the Javan tiger extinct in 1996. So why even search you might ask? Early on in our conversations Didi reminded me, "Poor people are crazy, rich people are eccentric." The 1996 extinction status is awash in politicians lust for money and power. Unfortunately the tigers fate is also bound with the shiny stuff that is one of the world's ultimate symbols of greed, gold. On Java where you found tigers you would also likely find gold. So with the right politicians in their back pocket the mining industry would buy the tigers extinction status and pave their golden roads into the formerly protected habitat of the Javan tiger. To gather information on one of the most illusive animals on Earth, Didi had to gain the trust of local hunters on Java. As is quite common the globe over, hunters have wildlife information that would be hard to obtain from any other source. Obtaining this data would be made all the more difficult by the fact that the hunters believed he was a private investigator, and it took 2 years before he gained their trust!  *This image is copyright of its original author  *This image is copyright of its original author Javan tiger 1957 East Java At this point Didi told me the differences between traditional and commerical tiger hunters. The commercial hunters are obviously in it for commercial gain and will steal cubs or poach adult tigers for black market trade. The traditional or ritual hunter only goes after aging tigers, never cubs. Hunters from East Java believe that they must sacrifice one tiger every year to keep Java safe from natural disasters like volcanoes and earthquakes. After the tiger is killed, blood is collected and kept in a vessel that is placed in a cave. Didi was told to stop his research by the hunters. Only after convincing them of the need to conserve more forest for the tigers did they begin to supply him with more information. This has included four pieces of different tiger skins collected since 2005, the latest being from April this year(2013)! DNA analysis is currently be conducted.  *This image is copyright of its original author *This image is copyright of its original author Variation of Striping on Tigers in Indonesia. From left to right. Adult Javan, Adolescent Javan, Sumatran, Bali. I met Mr. Didi while conducting high conservation value assessments with an ecology team Ekologika Consultants on Sumatra. On my 1st day in the field with them, we had walked a transect line in mature, secondary forest. It was nearly 6 pm when we reached the end of the trail, and we sat in the deepening dusk waiting to begin night surveys. Stars twinkled through the canopy and fire flies glided by. Didi suddenly motioned for us to listen as you could hear a growling sort of call in the distance. Soon you could hear a response from another direction and then another. Before we knew it, Didi estimated that there were 6-7 Sumatran tigers giving territory calls! A tiger biologist hearing his study subject for the 1st time in the wild. Driving back to camp that night we saw the small leopat cat, which was also a 1st for Didi and of course me! Of course a lot of tiger stories were told that evening and the subsequent days especially since Didi and the team herpatologist, Hastin would smell tiger pheromone the next morning! So here is the story that trumps them all.  *This image is copyright of its original author Hastin and Didi In 2011 seven villagers close to the area we were working had stolen a tiger's cub. Not only had they stolen it, but they had eaten it! The tiger would take its revenge though. The 7 villagers would soon be killed by the tiger and each time it killed, it would eat a single body part. This included arms, legs, innards and the head from which the tiger consumed the brains. At this point I figured that this must indeed be a "story." Then Mr. Wiwit, our rather squeamish guide, piped up and asked if I wanted to see the pictures! I was shocked and now tried to wrap my head around this rather unbelievable tale. As I sat there, our team leader, Wening related another story from a village nearby. Some of these villagers had also stolen a cub, but sold it rather than eating it. The village would be terrorized by a tiger every night for the next month. It was all almost too incredible to believe.  *This image is copyright of its original author Claw mark of big cat in the Forest of Java vs Claw mark of captive tiger from Jogja Zoo There's certainly a colorful folklore that goes along with these incredible creatures, and where the facts end and the fiction begins is often difficult to discern. What is certain is that tigers the world over place an incredibly important role as top predators in ecosystems. If you want to learn more about or contribute to Mr. Didik Raharyono's research contact him at http://javantigercenter.wordpress.com or find him on Facebook at https://www.facebook.com/pages/Javan-Tig...1629805321. Sources https://www.travelblog.org/Asia/Indonesi...12944.html
Great post on Java tigers, my friend. It was moved to this thread at my request. Where have you been all this time? What did you find on the elusive Java tiger presumed extinct? How about you posting a little bit more?
(12-04-2014, 08:51 PM)'peter' Wrote: Great post on Java tigers, my friend. It was moved to this thread at my request. Where have you been all this time? What did you find on the elusive Java tiger presumed extinct? How about you posting a little bit more? Hello Peter, how are you? Me, I've been quite busy lately. but I will always make time to follow this great forum (thanks everyone). i'm sorry that i cannot post in here regularly my friend, but I promise you I will post here if I find something interesting. About Javan Tigers, well.. I have one great news for you and all animal lovers in general. what if i told you that Mr. Didik Raharyono (see the article above), a Wildlife Biologist and researcher of panthera (tigris) sondaica, finally got the picture we've always wanted. a picture of the extinct Javan Tiger alive!! actually it's not just one picture. he got two pictures from two different specimens alive. I surely will post those pictures here as soon as I have his permission. So stay tuned my friends. [img]images/smilies/smile.gif[/img] |
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