Stupendemys geographicus
Because of its size , the podocnemidid Stupendous Stupendemys is the most remarkable turtle from Urumaco, Venezuela. A specimen with a carapace length of 330 cm and carapace width of 220cm was first reported by Aguilera (2004), making it the largest of them all, Picture 1 and 2 are of Gigantic turtle Stupendemys geographicus with a shell about 8 feet in length, hangs suspended near restored columns in the Hall of Vertebrate Origins in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, USA. Picture nro 3 if of Reconstruction of Stupendemys geographicus Artwork by Jorge Gonzalez.

 


Capybaras (Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris) it is the largest rodent in the world with a head and body length excluding the tail of 1,06 to 1,34 mt and a shoulder height of 55 to 65 cm, they weight from 35 to 65 kg with males larger than females. They live in big groups in the Venezuelan Llanos, they spend most of the time in the water or close to the water. When they are adults their predators are Anacondas, Jaguars, Pumas and Orinoco Crocodiles, when they are young they have many predators Caiman crocodilus, Ocelots, Jaguarundis,  Foxes, Birds of Prey  and Piranhas,  they have an average of 4 youngs (1 to 7) they get birth two or more times during the year. In Big Ranches called Hatos in Venezuela where they are not hunted by man you can see big numbers of Capibaras.

@Garfield 
I once thought I'm gonna get kicked out, because i was disrespectful to a dumbo called Haymaker..a guy who used to come here just to troll.
& you're spreading insecurity studded political agenda here??!!!  

YES you know a lot less than most of us, 
Doing bit of research doesn't make you an expert...You dont know what a buffer is... don't know what's going on in the conservation or the scientific world...You are not interested in knowing about the nature or wildlife, just which animal can kick whose ass...Your only contribution to Wildfact is posts like "Wow man that lion looks strong".........Shall i continue??

Maybe you have watched  a few videos of captive animals, so..?? I've watched hundreds & i still don't know as much as many veteran members of the forum!!!


@sanjay people need not be banned as long as spam posts are deleted...just the serial spammers & abusive guys (there are no rules that i know of, against posts on gounds of being disrespectful).
I came across few of @Pckts (& few other)'s old posts in AvA, they sounded pretty fanboyish...look at them now!!!

Please, do consider it as a request from a member who intends to stay in Wildfact for quite a while...

Why in NGC Tiger still 9 subspecies not 1 sub like u say

Edit:
Question is re-framed

I'm starting this thread to serve as WILDFACT'S own Library, that will store about any Wildlife & Nature & Environment related document the forum members upload. The purpose is to make available such e-books & e-papers, that otherwise would have been scattered, unnoticed somewhere on the internet!!!
Do contribute & help enrich the collection...


Let there be three basic rules:

1. Always post a single document in one post, so that i can put it in contents table.
2. Mention the name written on the cover page & NOT WHAT IT IS SAVED AS.
3. Try to upload it in cloud so that it can be read online, as well as downloaded by members & guests.
   

Gotta get your Vitamin A and Omega 3s somewhere,  apparently is from shark liver and hearts.   Multiple sharks found dead and partially eaten.  



http://gizmodo.com/killer-whales-eat-eno...1795016535

--- by Team NiF

---

Artist/Cartoonist
Rohan Chakravarty, Wildlife Cartoonist, Green Humour
The job: I convert information about biology and conservation issues into funny snippets in the form of comics, or present an animal or a place as a delightfully exaggerated caricature. Like scientists chase wild animals to gather droppings, I chase them to gather inspiration (and sometimes droppings too). 
Sustainability: It depends on how crazy in the head you are. If work and play mean the same thing to you, this one's for you. It took a lot of rigour to make cartooning a career (not that the struggle is over yet). I held a day job as an animation designer for three years, before I could take up cartooning full time.

*This image is copyright of its original author

*This image is copyright of its original author

The beginner's take home: Anything between ₹15,000 to ₹30,000. Now, with the Internet expanding like the belly of a Honeypot Ant, prospects are slowly turning sweeter. The more avenues you can tap into, the better the dough. 
The takeaway: With social media, it's quite easy to get your work out to an audience, gain 'likes' and 'followers' and think you're a great cartoonist. But training is a lot more important than likes and followers. Stick figures are great means of expression, but they aren't cartoons. Watch animated classics, read the comic strip greats, study form, buy books on cartoon drawing (Christopher Hart is one of the best authors on these matters), focus on developing a style, draw hundreds of shapes, characters and expressions every day, write down ideas and doodle vigorously. 

Filmmaker 
Saravanakumar Salem, Wildlife Filmmaker/Cinematographer, Indian Wildlife Channel
The job: Depending on the assignment, I make wildlife films or sometimes just shoot them on behalf of a company. Making a film requires raising funds, coming up with a concept and then executing it.  
Sustainability: As with any creative freelance work, this is very subjective. Hone your skills, keep getting better and you'll get more work. Your success depends on your performance. 

*This image is copyright of its original author

The beginner's take home: The pay scale is variable. Nobody wants to pay you until you're good at what you do, and that takes time. Be ready to work for free or on a subsistence income until you get recognised. 
The takeaway: Prepare for the long haul. This is not something that you can do well without a lot of effort. And you cannot rest on your laurels. Be consistently good. If you love the work and are willing to dedicate your time to it, you can make an impact in this field. 

Fundraiser
Nishanth Ravindranathan, Fundraising Manager, Wildlife SOS
The job: To reach out to people and talk to them about wildlife conservation, and the work that we do at Wildlife SOS. I try and inspire them to support us in whichever way they can, through volunteering or donations. I work on grants and CSR objectives with companies to organise events. I also help conduct wildlife conservation awareness sessions at schools, colleges, and companies. 

*This image is copyright of its original author

The beginner's take home: It depends on your work experience in the NGO sector. I had none, so I joined as a tele-caller and earned ₹10,000 per month; starting pay is around ₹12,000 now. 
The takeaway: The sooner you start and the more risks you are willing to take, the better. Your pay will probably be halved if you've moved from another industry. If you feel you can manage with that and are passionate about this work, jump right in. You won't regret it. 

Indian Forest Service Officer
Vijay Mohan Raj, Chief Conservator of Forests, Belagavi Circle
The job: My team is responsible for the wellbeing of forests and wildlife in three districts of North Karnataka: Belagavi, Bagalkot and Vijayapura. This involves protecting forest land from encroachment, grazing, and illicit tree felling. We focus on soil and moisture conservation, wildlife protection, and man-animal conflict management. We commission studies on biodiversity documentation and manage forest resources for timber and fuelwood. We are also involved in creating public awareness through ecotourism. 
Sustainability: The Indian Forest Service doesn't just provide a sustainable job, it's a journey of experiences. Most importantly, you work to preserve crucial natural resources, which ensures the sustainability of current and future generations also. 

*This image is copyright of its original author

The beginner's take home: A beginner would start off with around ₹60,000; senior officers make more than 2 lakhs per month. The perks and privileges are plenty - accommodation in heritage forest resthouses, a vehicle and dedicated support staff. An IFS officer has access to pristine ecosystems which are out of bounds for the common man, and gets to experience nature like no one else.
The takeaway: If you have a passion for the outdoors and adventure, the Indian Forest Service is for you. 

*This image is copyright of its original author

Photography Tour Leader
Nisha Purushothaman, Co-Founder, Paws Trails 
The job: To conduct wildlife photography tours, workshops and exhibitions. To spread awareness about conservation. 
Sustainability: I work as a freelance consultant for web-related projects. My photography workshops help in covering the costs for trips I take to the forests.
The takeaway: There is no shortcut to nature/wildlife photography. Understanding animal behaviour is the key. Follow your dream. Life may not be easy, but a life spent living your dream is worth living.

Project Coordinator
Bhavna Menon, Project Coordinator, Last Wilderness Foundation 
The job: To structure and execute field projects. I draw up proposals based on feasibility, and coordinate with concerned authorities and stakeholders. 
Sustainability: Sustainability depends on the vision of a particular organisation. If the structure, vision and scale is clear, the model automatically becomes sustainable. Funding also plays a huge part in this, and that varies across organisations.
The beginner's take home:  A starting salary could be anywhere between ₹15,000 to ₹20,000. 
The takeaway: Read (lots!), ask questions, meet people working in the industry, volunteer with organisations. Field experience plays a pivotal role in helping you understand the nature of work you want to pursue - whether as a researcher, education officer, writer or otherwise.

Scientist/Teacher
Suresh Kumar, Scientist, Department of Endangered Species Management, Wildlife Institute of India
The job: To carry out field research on lesser-known and threatened fauna, primarily bird species across the Indian landscape. My research focuses on animal ecology, movement and migration studies, and conservation biology. I also train forestry officials and advise government departments on policy matters. 
Sustainability: I completed my Master’s degree in Wildlife Science in 1997, but I only got this job ten years later. But now it is sustainable, since my position here is permanent. 

*This image is copyright of its original author

The beginner's take home:  In the nineties, the starting stipend for a wildlife researcher or biologist was around ₹2,500. Now, it's ₹12,000, and if the candidate has cleared the required examinations (UGC-NET), then he or she gets a fellowship of around ₹25,000. To secure a permanent job, students should pursue a PhD in biological sciences.
The takeaway: This is an extremely exciting, challenging field of work. In recent years, the government, academic institutes, and NGOs have undertaken several wildlife research projects at the national and state level, which means there are lot more job opportunities today. Well-trained biologists are always in demand. 

Veterinarian
Gowri Mallapur, former veterinarian at the Madras Crocodile Bank Trust
The job: To keep the animals healthy, and take measures to prevent disease. If an animal is sick, it should be treated in a way that causes it minimal stress.
The beginner's take home: Somewhere between ₹30,000 to ₹40,000. The job pays decently, but will never make you rich.
The takeaway: This work is satisfying on multiple levels - professional, personal and emotional. Being a vet is often "MacGyverish" - you need to think on your feet and no two days are alike. Financially, it can get frustrating, but these are always learning opportunities that propel growth. If you're passionate about wildlife care and an opportunity presents itself, just take it. 

Travel And Documentary Photographer
Mayank Soni, Freelance Photographer
The job: To document vanishing cultures and shoot travel destinations for magazines. Besides this, I thoroughly enjoy shooting wildlife, though lately my focus has turned to communities (in conflict with wildlife), which have the potential to turn to conservation.
Sustainability: You have to juggle between assignments to stay afloat - the ones that pay well and those that are close to your heart. It will take around three to five years to get a stable income.
The beginner's take home: Freelance does not guarantee a fixed income, so anywhere between ₹10,000 to ₹30,000, depending on the assignments you do.
The takeaway: Work on a niche, long-term project, which you truly believe in. This will help you build a credible body of work.

Writer
Sejal Mehta, Writer/ Editor
The job: I write and edit across genres, and one of those genres deals with stories on nature. This involves finding stories about travel, conservation, communities and wildlife, and telling them in an engaging way to an audience that may well be unaware, or possibly uninterested in what is happening in our forests. 
Sustainability: You start small but gradually make your way to a place that is comfortable. I have had a steady income right from the start of my career, so I've had no trouble. 

*This image is copyright of its original author

The beginner's take home:  Depending on the media house, you'll make around ₹15,000 to ₹20,000 to begin with. 
The takeaway: Work for organisations for a while before you start to freelance. This will help you understand all aspects of the publishing industry: writing, editing and advertising. When you start out, don't be content to sit at a desk and curate work, get out in the field, spend your own money if you need to, but travel to places that need to be written about, and meet people working at the grassroots. Be prepared to spend time reading. Get your facts right. Above all else, write endlessly to hone your craft. You have the power to tell stories to bring about change. Create awareness, educate, but also develop a style that entertains, and appeals to a larger audience. 


We love a good critique but are infinitely partial to compliments. Both, roars and birdsong are welcome at [email protected]

Smilodon fatalis was the famous cat known from the Rancho La Brea tar pits in Los Angeles.The tar, a bit like asphalt, has yielded about a million bones of late Pleistocene mammals, of which 162,000 bones are from Smilodon, representing perhaps 1200 individuals. it weighted up to 280 kg (620 lb) measured from 175 to 190 cm and had a height at the shoulders of 100 cm (39 in). The coat pattern of Smilodon is unknown, but it has been artistically restored with plain or spotted patterns.
Smilodon fatalis hunted large herbivores such as bison and camels, but it is unclear in what manner the bite itself was delivered.
The front limbs on these cats were longer and stronger than modern cats, and from that, and its teeth, its method of attack must have been different. An educated guess would be: they were an ambush predators, which clung on round the neck of their prey, and slashed at the underside of the throat. This contrasts with the method of the modern lion, which brings down its prey by weight of numbers, and clamps its jaws over the prey's nose and mouth. The prey dies of suffocation.
Smilodon's gape could have reached almost 120 degrees, while that of the modern lion reaches 65 degrees. This makes the gape wide enough to allow Smilodon to slash the throats of their victims without closing their jaws in a bite.

Some carnivorous mammal manage to keep their claws sharps. That's especially true when we talk about cats in general. It seems to be a common assumption that cats manage to keep their claw sharp because of their retractability. Alought claw retractability might help keeping your claws sharps, that's probably not the primary reason why their claws stay sharp. Domestic cats, lions, tigers, bobcats and probably the vast majority of cats are equipped with a "claw-shedding mechanism". This mechanism is also present on other carnivorous mammal, the following explain how this mechanism work :

''The morphology of cornified structures is notoriously difficult to analyse because of the extreme range of hardness of their component tissues. Hence, a correlative approach using light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, three-dimensional reconstructions based on x-ray computed tomography data, and graphic modeling was applied to study the morphology of the cornified claw sheath of the domesticated cat as a model for cornified digital end organs. The highly complex architecture of the cornified claw sheath is generated by the living epidermis that is supported by the dermis and distal phalanx. The latter is characterized by an ossified unguicular hood, which overhangs the bony articular base and unguicular process of the distal phalanx and creates an unguicular recess. The dermis covers the complex surface of the bony distal phalanx but also creates special structures, such as a dorsal dermal papilla that points distally and a curved ledge on the medial and lateral sides of the unguicular process. The hard-cornified external coronary horn and proximal cone horn form the root of the cornified claw sheath within the unguicular recess, which is deeper on the dorsal side than on the medial and lateral sides. As a consequence, their rate of horn production is greater dorsally, which contributes to the overall palmo-apical curvature of the cornified claw sheath. The external coronary and proximal cone horn is worn down through normal use as it is pushed apically. The hard-cornified apical cone horn is generated by the living epidermis enveloping the base and free part of the dorsal dermal papilla. It forms nested horn cones that eventually form the core of the hardened tip of the cornified claw. The sides of the cornified claw sheath are formed by the newly described hard-cornified blade horn, which originates from the living epidermis located on the slanted face of the curved ledge. As the blade horn is moved apically, it entrains and integrates the hard-cornified parietal horn on its internal side. It is covered by the external coronary and proximal cone horn on its external side. The soft-cornified terminal horn extends distally from the parietal horn and covers the dermal claw bed at the tip of the uniguicular process, thereby filling the space created by the converging apical cone and blade horn. The soft-cornified sole horn fills the space between the cutting edges of blade horn on the palmar side of the cornified claw sheath. The superficial soft-cornified perioplic horn is produced on the internal side of the unguicular pleat, which surrounds the root of the cornified claw sheath. The shedding of apical horn caps is made possible by the appearance of microcracks in the superficial layers of the external coronary and proximal cone horn in the course of deformations of the cornified claw sheath, which is subjected to tensile forces during climbing or prey catching. These microcracks propagate tangentially through the coronary horn and do not injure the underlying living epidermal and dermal tissues. This built-in shedding mechanism maintains sharp claw tips and ensures the freeing of the claws from the substrate.''

''That a superficial layer of the cornified claw sheath is shed when domesticated cats appear to sharpen their claws by scratching rough surfaces, such as tree bark or rough textiles, is well known among pet owners and veterinarians, and was mentioned earlier by De Weerdt (1927). Siedamgrotzky (1871), though, described a continuous abrasion as the mechanism for keeping claws sharp and seems to have been unaware that cats shed horn caps off their claws. Interestingly, in Dyce et al. (2002), a shed horn cap of a cornified claw sheath is shown as an example of an actual cat claw. However, the internal architecture of the cornified material that allows such a controlled shedding of its superficial layer without cracks propagating into the underlying living tissues has not been analysed and cannot be inferred from the currently available information on the morphology of claws. Not only domesticated cats but also large cats, such as lions, tigers and bobcats (staff at the Baton Rouge Zoo, personal communication), small dogs (Barbara Luikhart, Galvez Veterinary Clinic, Prairieville, Louisiana, personal communication), and even horses (K.-D. Budras, Institute of Veterinary Anatomy, Free University Berlin, unpublished observation of a Przewalski horse) can shed their claws or hooves. Hence, the phenomenon of shedding superficial parts of cornified digital end organs is of a more general interest and warrants a better understanding of the morphology of cornified end organs to explain the mechanisms that are involved.''

Scanning electron microscopy picture of shed horn caps off the tips of cornified claw sheaths of an adult female cat. (a) Proximal view (specimen SC no. 3). (b) Side view (specimen SC no. 5).


''The microcracks expose edges of horn layers to water loss. In combination with aging and continuing internal strain throughout the cornified claw sheath, these processes promote the formation of intercellular cracks that propagate from the peripheral microcracks through the horn preferentially along the interfaces between the cornified cell layers. In this manner, the separation of superficial layers can proceed tangentially to the interface between the living tissues and the cornified epidermis without creating perpendicular cracks that would damage the underlying living tissues. Hence, the ongoing simultaneous horn production and formation of microcracks result in superficial layers of coronary horn being separated from underlying layers of coronary horn through tangential cracks that propagate through the horn material starting from the superficial microcracks. As can be seen from the surface structure of shed horn caps, several microcracks may appear before a particular microcrack spreads between two layers of horn and separates a horn cap from the main part of the cornified claw sheath in preparation for the shedding of the horn cap. The actual removal of this horn cap is probably facilitated by the characteristic scratching behavior of cats on rough surfaces of bark or textile.''

"The selective regime for the evolution of the claw-shedding mechanism in cats is likely to be connected with the need to maintain sharp cutting edges and a sharply pointed tip, as well as to be able to free the claws from struggling prey or other substrates without the risk of pulling the entire claw sheath off the vascularized and innervated dermal claw bed. At this point in time, it is less clear why small dogs and even horses have evolved the capacity for shedding their claws or hooves, respectively. It may be hypothesized that the shedding of superficial horn layers of claws and hooves is more widespread among terrestrial vertebrates than hitherto assumed and that, therefore, the shedding mechanism of cats is only more pronounced and effective because it has evolved under the selective regime for climbing and prey catching. Additional studies will be needed to clarify these and other questions concerning the evolutionary history of cornified digital end organs.''

All of the above paragraphs and picture are quoted from this scientific article : The structure of the cornified claw sheath in the domesticated cat (Felis catus): implications for the claw-shedding mechanism and the evolution of cornified digital end organs

If you have any informations about similar mechanisms present on other animals, please share it in this thread.